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HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


AND 


HUMAN CONDUCT 


BY 


ROBERT D. TRASK, LL. B. 

V 


“ The true purpose of knowledge 
is the regulation of our conduct 

— George Henry Lezves . 


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1901. 

PRINTED AT THE CHASE PRESS, 
HAVERHILL, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A, 





\ ' 


THE LIBRARY OF 

CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

WAY. 27 1302 

Copyright entry 

/Hit 

No. 

27730 

COPY B. 


Copyright 1888 , By Robert D. Trask. 














DEDICATED 

TO 

MY WIFE. 



CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER I. 

Knowledge.—Truth.— Science.— Philosophy 


PAGE 

3 


CHAPTER II. 

Sources and Limits of Knowledge 


• * 


CHAPTER III. 

A Survey of the Field of Knowledge 


!3 


Books . 


CHAPTER IV. 


• • • • 


51 


CHAPTER V. 


Literature . 


• • 


67 


History 


CHAPTER VI. 


• • 


o o 


I 13 


Society 


CHAPTER VII. 


• • 


139 


CHAPTER VIII. 


The True Purpose of Life . 


*55 


CHAPTER IX. 


Education . 


• • • 


. 161 


CHAPTER X. 


Ethics . 


• • 


t • • • • 


177 















PREFACE. 


I have attempted in this little work to bring system- 

'O' 

atically before the mind outlines of what there is to be 
known, to emphasize the truth that the proper use of 
knowledge is the application of it so as to regulate the 
conduct of life, and to offer suggestions which will aid 
in the acquisition of knowledge. These pages have 
been written, hoping they will prove in some degree a 
guide to knowledge and a guide to conduct. The 
prominent features of the work are its outlines, tables, 
and chart; and these features make the work unique. 
This volume is designed for the use of all classes of 
readers; and I trust it will prove valuable as a guide 
to those who have not had the advantage of extended 
school education and to those who are engaged in self¬ 
culture, and that it will prove a convenience for refer¬ 
ence and review to those who are educated. It is with 
pleasure that I acknowledge my indebtedness to every 
author and every work, mentioned in my chapter on 
“ Books.” 


Haverhill, Mass., 

August 14, 1888. 


Robert D. Trask. 



/ 


SUPPLEMENT TO PREFACE. 

On the fourteenth day of August, 1888, the thirty- 
sixth anniversary of my birthday, I completed the manu¬ 
script of this book, by writing the foregoing preface* 
The manuscript is here published without addition or 
alteration, except that in the chapter on “ Literature ’’ 
in the “ Table of Authors,” the date of the death of the 
author has been added, in instances where the author 
has deceased since the completion of the manuscript, in 
1888. I have no apology to make to the reader for the 
fact, that thirteen years have elapsed between the com¬ 
pletion of the manuscript and its publication, for the 
reason that the subject-matter with which it deals is 
not transient but permanent. In so far as the subject- 
matter is knowledge, it is known truth; and, as one 
writer has said: “Truth is the most unbending and un- 
compliable, the most necessary, firm, immutable, and 
adamantine thing in the world.” In so far as the sub¬ 
ject-matter is human conduct, it is dealt with in this 
book, in harmony with a rule, which was promulgated 
nineteen centuries ago. 

“ Of making many books there is no end.” When 
we consider, that the largest libraries in the world do 
not contain anything like a full collection of the world’s 
books; and when we further consider, that the annual 
product of the world’s books is counted in thousands, 


X 


SUPPLEMENT TO PREFACE. 


we see the application of the above quotation to our 
own time. Since 1888, many thousand books have 
been made. I wish to call attention to only a few vol¬ 
umes, made since the completion of the manuscript of 
my chapter on “Books,” and recommend them for 
reading, in addition to the recommendations made in 
the chapter referred to. A work of fiction appeared in 
the last part of 1888, entitled “ Looking Backward,” by 
Edward Bellamy, which, if not an epoch-making book, 
at least marks an epoch in the activity of thought con¬ 
cerning man socially . Thinking men and women since 
the appearance of “ Looking Backward,” have given 
much attention to the problem: How can national 
prosperity be accompanied by conditions, that shall 
bring to the masses a fuller and more equitable share 
of the good things, which the progress of civilization 
has always brought to the few? Other books of fiction 
which I will mention are: “Robert Elsmere,” Mrs. H. 
Ward, 1888; “Quo Vadis,” H. Sienkiewicz, 1896; 
“Equality,” Edward Bellamy, 1897; “David Harum,” 
Edward Noyes Wescott, and “Richard Carvel,” Win¬ 
ston Churchill, 1899; “The Reign of Law,” James 
Lane Allen; “The Master Christian,” Marie Corelli; 
“Eben Holden,” Irving A. Bacheller, 1900; “The 
Crisis,” Winston Churchill, 1901; “Extracts from 
Adam’s Diary,” Mark Twain, Ha/rpePs, April, 1901. 
On Comparative Psychology, George John Romanes, 
in 1889, published his work, “Origin of Human Facul¬ 
ty.” “Principles of Ethics,” Borden P. Bowne, 1892, 
is a valuable contribution to the subject. I will men¬ 
tion here two writers, who, by means of monthly peri¬ 
odicals, are helping men, women and children in the 


SUPPLEMENT TO PREFACE. 


XI 


direction of the right conduct of life . The first is, 
George T. Angell, whose “ Our Dumb Animals ” has 
come to my desk for nearly twenty years. He teaches 
by example and precept, kindness to animals, and at 
the same time the great lesson of human kindness. 
The second is Elbert Hubbard, whose unique periodi¬ 
cal, “The Philistine,” abounds in humor, as well as in 
such sentiments as this: “Do your work as well as you 
can and be kind.” 

Touching the sub-division, “Knowledge of Man 
Mentally,” with its branches Psychology, Metaphysics, 
and Philosophy, and its sub-branches Religion and 
Theology being dealt with, the following books are 
important: “Essays, Reviews and Addresses,” James 
Martineau, published 1890-1891; “A History of the 
Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom,” 
A. D. White, 1896; “The Conception of God,” Josiah 
Royce, Joseph LeConte, G. H. Howison, and Sidney 
Edward Mezes, 1898; “Through Nature to God,” John 
Fiske, 1899; “Life Beyond Death,” Minot J. Savage, 
and “From India to the Planet Mars,” Th. Flournoy, 
1900; “Nature of Life After Death,” James H. Hyslop, 
in Harpeds Monthly for March, 1901; “Cosmic Con¬ 
sciousness,” Dr. Richard Maurice Bucke, 1901. 

I will close by expressing my appreciation of the 
following works of reference: “The Century Diction¬ 
ary,” 1897; “The Universal Cyclopedia,” 1900; and 
“Current History,” published since 1890, first quarterly 
and now monthly. 

Robert D. Trask. 

Haverhill, Mass., 

August 30, 1901. 































KNOWLEDGE, 

TRUTH, 

SCIENCE, 

PHILOSOPHY. 



























CHAPTER I. 


KNOWLEDGE.-TRUTH.-SCIENCE.-PHILOSOPHY. 

I T is important at the beginning of this work to con¬ 
sider what is the meaning of the term knowledge; 
also to consider what is the relation of knowledge to 
truth, to science, and to philosophy. Knowledge is 
that which is known. What is it to know? To know 
is to perceive. What is it to perceive? To perceive 
is to see to be true. Hence, knowledge is that which 
is seen (by the eye of mind) to be true; or, knowledge 
may be defined in brief to be knouon truth . But, in 
the language of Pilate “What is truth?” A definition 
sometimes fails of its object, that is, to make understood 
the meaning of the word defined. A word may be de¬ 
fined in terms not as well understood as the word itself. 
This thought occurs upon consideration of the matter 
of defining truth, a word the meaning of which is per¬ 
haps very well understood. Truth is more than actu¬ 
ality, more than certainty or reality, and a broader term 
than rightness. In the relation between knowledge and 
truth, truth is always the object of knowledge; and 
knowledge can not exist apart from it. The word 
truth is generally defined to be conformity to fact; 
reality; actuality; certainty; rightness. 

Now, conformity to fact is conformity to what has 


4 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


been done, or what has come to pass; reality is a thing 
truly existing; actuality is an acted, or acting truth; 
certainty is truth established in the mind; and rightness 
is conduct in conformity to truth. It is apparent that 
each of these terms used to define truth, represents only 
a phase of it; and that, as above hinted, truth means 
more than each and all of them. To venture a defini¬ 
tion: Truth is the object of all existing and possible 
knowledge. 

It now remains to consider the meaning of the 
terms science and philosophy, and the relation of each 
to knowledge. Science* is a fart of knowledge 
systematized. Philosophyf is the 'whole of knowledge 
systematized. Science takes a part of knowledge, 
deals with its laws, principles and relations, and forms 
it into a complete and orderly branch; while philosophy 
takes all the parts or branches of knowledge, considers 
the matter of sources, limits, and relations, the laws ef¬ 
fecting, and forms from all these parts a complete and 
harmonious whole. To recapitulate: Knowledge is 
known truth. Truth is the object of all existing and 
possible knowledge. Science is a part of knowledge 
systematized. Philosophy is the whole of knowledge 
systematized. 

♦Note. The term science, as commonly used, refers to those branches of knowledge which re¬ 
late to the physical world and physical man; but the term properly applies to all branches of system¬ 
atized knowledge, taken singly or collectively. The question may be asked: How does science differ 
from philosophy then, according to the above definition of philosophy? In this way: Science as a 
name for all branches of systematized knowledge taken collectively, is not the name for all knowl¬ 
edge, or the whole of knowledge formed into a single system. 

|See under Philosophy, Chapter hi. 















































SOURCES AND 
LIMITS 

OF KNOWLEDGE. 




















CHAPTER II. 


SOURCES AND LIMITS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

SOURCES. 

PART from our own mind, the sources of our 



knowledge are mankind and the 'world . We 
acquire knowledge from mankind by hearing their con¬ 
versation and discourse, and by reading their books. 
We acquire knowledge from the world by observation 
and experiment. Much of our knowledge of the world 
comes to us in the shape of the accumulated experience 
of mankind. Observation, experiment, conversation, 
discourse, and reading furnish the material which the 
process of thought forms into knowledge. 


LIMITS 


All our faculties are limited; all our powers are 
conditional. We are finite, and, being so, we can not 
know the Infinite. We can not know the first cause 
of things, neither can we know the final result. The 
force which manifests itself throughout the universe, 
we can not comprehend. There is a mystery of time 
and space, of matter, life and mind. In short, in the 
final analysis of things, we arrive at elements which 
can not be known.* 


*Sec under Metaphysics, Chapter Hi. 



A SURVEY OF THE FIELD 
OF KNOWLEDGE. 









CHAPTER III. 


A SURVEY OF THE FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE. 


nPHE field of human knowledge is so vast an area, 
^ that only a small portion of it can be thoroughly 
worked, by any individual, in the limits of a lifetime. 
To master the details of a single branch of knowledge, 
often requires many years of earnest work. Five cen¬ 
turies ago, the systematized knowledge of the time was 
comprised in the branches known as “The seven liberal 
arts,” viz,: Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Music, Arith¬ 
metic, Geometry, and Astronomy. The accumulation 
of knowledge since that time is truly wonderful. Be¬ 
ginning with the earliest times of which we have a 
written record, the increase of knowledge may be 
traced all the way down through the ages, being more 
marked in the last half century. The seeker after 
knowledge is bewildered by the very vastness of the 
accumulation, and, unless he has a guide, wanders as 
in a wilderness. Much of our knowledge is necessarily 
acquired in a fragmentary way. We gather a little here 
and a little there, many fragments of many branches; 
but it is not necessary that we should be ignorant of 
the relation of the fragments which we gather, to the 
whole. Notwithstanding the impossibility of mastering 
in detail all knowledge, yet every individual may make 


H 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


a thorough survey of the field, learn the divisions, sub¬ 
divisions, and branches, become familiar with the rela¬ 
tion of part to part, and be able to comprehend it as 
a complete whole. Such a survey enables one to find 
the kind of knowledge he is in search of, and to know 
the place of any fragment of knowledge he may chance 
to gather. 

The present purpose is a survey of the field of 
human knowledge, in which the mind will be aided by 
presenting to the eye outlines. In the outlines, the idea 
of beginning with a foundation and building upward is 
carried out, so they should be read beginning at the 
bottom. The following shows the divisions and sub¬ 
divisions of knowledge, the subjects of which the latter 
treat, and the relation of the same to the forces of nature 
or manifestations of force. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT 


is 


OUTLINE I. 


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a 


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£ 


Mentally 


Socially 


Thought 


Man 


Knowledge 


Physically 


a) 

• pH 
-1 


Geography. 

Geology. 

Biology.Vital Force 


Mineralogy . 

g Chemistry.Atomic Force 

£ Physics ..... Molecular Force 

Astronomy.Gravitation 


The World 


a 

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H 


<U 

O 

e<J 


Ph 

in 



Mathematics 

















16 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


AJJ Knowledge is comprised in the two divisions: 
Knowledge of the World and Knowledge of Man. 

Knowledge of the World includes the sub-divi¬ 
sions: Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, 
Mineralogy, Biology, Geology, and Geography. 

Knowledge of Man includes three sub-divisions: 
the first considering man Physically, the second Socially, 
and the third Mentally. 

The lowest sub- division, Mathematics, treats of 
number, space and time; the next higher sub-divisions 
treat of matter; the next group treats of life; and the 
highest sub-division treats of mind. 

The relation of the sub-divisions to the forces of 
nature appears: Astronomy relating to the lowest force, 
gravitation; Physics relating to the next higher, molecu¬ 
lar force; Chemistry relating to the next, atomic force; 
Biology relating to the still higher, vital force; and 
man considered mentally relating to the highest force? 
thought. 


THE WORLD. 

Mathematics. There is a relation throughout the 
universe expressed by number , and the universe exists 
in sf>ace and time. Mathematics is the name for knowl¬ 
edge of number, space and time and their relations. 

The branches of Mathematics are shown by the 
following: 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


!7 


OUTLINE II. 


Analysis 


Calculus 

Analytical Geometry 
Algebra 


Mathematics 


Geometry 


Conic Sections 
Trigonometry 


Arithmetic 


We have first Arithmetic, the knowledge of num¬ 
bers and computation; next Geometry, the knowledge 
of relations in space, with its sub-branches Trigonome¬ 
try and Conic Sections; and last Analysis which is a 
knowledge of the solution of mathematical problems, 
having the three sub-branches Algebra, Analytical 
Geometry and Calculus. 

Astronomy. Knowledge of the world includes a 
knowledge of the universe of which it forms a part. 
That sub-division of knowledge which relates to the 
universe, or the solar and stellar systems, is called 
Astronomy. Astronomy includes a knowledge of the 
sun, moon, planets, stars, comets, and meteors, and 
deals with the force called gravitation. It is naturally 
divided into Solar Astronomy and Stellar Astronomy. 
The former relates to the solar system which includes 
our sun and all that revolves around it; and the latter 
to the stellar system including all the stars. The stellar 
system has another name meaning the same, to nvit , the 
sidereal system. 





1 8 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

We show Astronomy as follows: 

OUTLINE III. 


N ebulse 


Stellar 


Constellations 


Southern 

Equatorial 

Northern 


Meteors 


Aerolites 


Comets 


Astronomy 


Solar 


Planets 


Neptune 

Uranus 

Saturn 

Jupiter 

Asteroids 

Mars 

Earth 

Venus 

Mercury 


Sun 


Moon 


Solar Astronomy considers the sun first; next the 
planets including the earth with its satellite, the moon, 
the seven other large planets, and the small planets 








AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


I 9 


called asteroids of which there are more than two hun¬ 
dred; next the comets; and finally meteors, also known 
as shooting stars, fragments of which sometimes fall on 
the earth and are called aerolites (air-stones). 

Stellar Astronomy considers first the constellations 
which are the groups into which the stars have been 
formed by astronomers. These are divided into northern, 
equatorial, and southern, each division being in the sec¬ 
tion of the heavens indicated by the name. The stars 
of the constellations are known as fixed stars , because 
they keep nearly the same relative positions in the 
heavens, and to distinguish them from the planets and 
comets which revolve around the sun constantly chang¬ 
ing their relative positions. Stellar Astronomy also 
considers the nebulae which includes aggregations of 
stars, so remote as to be visible to the naked eye only 
as clouds of light, and masses of glowing gaseous 
matter. 

Physics. Knowledge of those phenomena of 
matter and manifestations of force, which work no 
change in the composition of bodies, is called Physics. 
Important in this department of knowledge is phenom¬ 
ena of the atmosphere. The term Natural Philosophy 
is often used instead of the term Physics. Physics 
deals especially with what is termed molecular force. 

The branches of Physics and what is included 
under each are shown by Outline IV. 


20 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


Physics 


OUTLINE IV. 


Aurora 

Lightning 

Rainbow 


Storms 


Meteorology 


Snow, Sleet and Ice 
Dew and Frost 
Rain 
Clouds 

Fogs and Mists 
Winds 


Force 


Electricity 

Magnetism 

Light 

Heat 

Sounds 


Mechanical Powers 


Equilibrium 

Motion 


Matter 


Gases 

Liquids 

Solids 


Water Spouts 
Tornadoes 
Cyclones 
Hurricanes 


Hydrostatic Press 
Jointed Links 
Inclined Plane 
Lever 









AND HUMAN CONDUCT, 


21 


The first branch of Physics has to do with matter, 
which may be defined as that which occupies space 
and manifests force. The three kinds of matter, solids, 
liquids, and gases, make thlree divisions in this branch. 

The second branch relates to force, which is the 
cause of all physical phenomena. This branch of 
Physics is sometimes called mechanics; and when 
so-called is usually divided into two parts, viz.: dyna¬ 
mics, treating of motion, and statics of equilibrium. 
A knowledge of force includes, first, a knowledge of 
motion and equilibrium; next, a knowledge of the 
mechanical powers, which are the four simple mechan¬ 
isms, on which depend all movements of animals and 
all machinery; and last, a knowledge of sounds, heat, 
light, magnetism, and electricity, all of which are 
modes of motion, or manifestations of force. 

The third branch of Physics is Meteorology, which 
is the knowledge of phenomena of the atmosphere, and 
the relation of the same to the weather. The different 
phenomena or groups of phenomena give us ten sub¬ 
branches of Meteorology. 

Chemistry. Knowledge of the composition of 
bodies, and of the phenomena which works changes in 
the composition of bodies, is named Chemistry. As¬ 
tronomy, Physics, and Chemistry all relate to matter. 
Astronomy deals with masses of matter effected by the 
manifestation of force called gravitation. Masses of 
matter are composed of molecules, and Physics deals 
with molecules and molecular force. Molecules of 
matter are composed of atoms, and Chemistry deals 
with atoms and atomic force. 


22 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


There are two classes of substances, simple and 
compound. Simple substances have their molecules 
made up of like atoms, and compound substances have 
theirs made up of unlike atoms. The simple substances 
are called elements. 


OUTLINE V. 


Chemistry 


Organic 


Inorganic 


Inorganic Chemistry is the chemistry of non-living 
matter. It deals with all of the more than sixty 
elements, for every one of them occurs in inorganic 
matter. 

Organic Chemistry is the chemistry of living things. 
Only a part of the elements occur in living matter, and 
only four of these are essential to life, viz.: oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon. 

Mineralogy. This is the name for knowledge of 
minerals. The term mineral includes all natural bodies 
all the parts of which are chemically similar, not the 
immediate result of life and not gaseous. Water is in¬ 
cluded, also coal. All the chemical elements occur in 
the mineral world. Some minerals have but one ele¬ 
ment, and some are much compounded. 


OUTLINE VI. 


Mineralogy 


Crystallography 




AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


2 3 


Crystallography is the name given for knowledge 
of crystals, or those minerals which take geometrical 
shapes by natural process. 

Biology. “The most humble organism is some¬ 
thing much higher than the inorganic dust under our 
feet; and no one with an unbiased mind can study any 
living creature, however humble, without being struck 
with enthusiasm at its marvelous structure and proper¬ 
ties.” Charles R . Darwin. 

Life is a manifestation of force, and this force 
which shows itself in life we call vital force. Knowl¬ 
edge of life, or of living things we name Biology. 


24 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


Biology 


OUTLINE 


Vertebrata 


Tunicata 


Zoology 


Arthropoda 


Mollusca 


Worms 

Echinodermata 

Coelenterata 

Sponges 

Protozoa 


Phenogams 


Botany 


Cryptogams 


VII. 

Mammalogy 

Ornithology 

Herpetology 

Ichthyology 


Entomology 

Conchology 


Exogens 

Endogens 

Acrogens 

Thallogens 

Protophytes 










AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


2 S 

Biology includes two branches, Botany and Zoology. 
Botany relates to plants or plant life. Some plants bear 
flowers, while others are flowerless, and this forms a 
basis of classification. All plants are either crypto¬ 
gams (flowerless plants), or phenogams (flowering 
plants). Cryptogams include protophytes, or one- 
celled plants, this type is microscopic; thallogens, or 
plants in which there is no distinction between stem and 
leaves, moss is an example; and acrogens, or top 
growers, ferns being an example. Phenogams include 
endogens, or inside-growers, of which grasses are an 
example; and exogens, or outside-growers, of which 
forest trees are an example. 

Zoology relates to animals or animal life. This 
part of the field of knowledge is sometimes called the 
animal kingdom, and it is separated into nine branches 
as shown by the above outline. Zoologists divide these 
branches into classes, the classes into orders, the orders 
into families, the families into genera, the genera into 
species, and the species into varieties. 

The following shows the place of the horse in each 
division: 

Kingdom: Animal. 

Branch: Vertebrates, Backboned. 

Class: Mammalia, Milk-givers. 

Order: Ungulata, Hoofed. 

Family: Equidae, Single-toed. (Horse type.) 

Genus: Equus, Horse. 

Species: Equus Caballus, Domestic Horse. 

Variety: Morgan. 

We will now consider the nine branches of ani¬ 
mals in their order: 


2 6 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


Protozoa means first animals. Under this branch 
is found the simplest forms of animal life, and the ani¬ 
mals of this branch are distinguished from those of all 
the other branches by being single-celled. There are 
several classes of protozoans. Most of the animals of 
this branch are microscopic. 

The sponges form the second branch of animals, 
and this branch is not much classified. 

Ccelenterata means hollow intestine . This branch 
has several classes, and includes the well-known jelly 
fish and the coral animal. 

The echinodermata have for digestive organ a 
canal distinct from the hollow of the body, which is 
the digestive organ of the preceding branch. There 
are several classes of echinodermata. The familiar 
animal of this branch is the star fish. 

Worms make the fifth branch of which there are 
a number of classes. 

The mollusca are soft-bodied animals, and are 
divided into three classes. Oysters, clams, and snails 
are of this branch. The department of Zoology which 
relates to the mollusca is called Conchology. 

Arthropoda means jointed foot . These animals 
have jointed bodies and appendages. The branch 
arthropoda is divided into two classes, crustaceans and 
insects. Crabs and lobsters are of the class crustaceans. 
The department of Zoology which relates to insects is 
called Entomology. The class insects is the largest in 
the animal kingdom, and it is much divided and sub¬ 
divided. 

Tunicata means loose coated. This eighth branch 
is very little classified. It seems to have an approach 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


2? 


to a backbone, and so takes the place next to the verte- 
brata, or backboned animals. 

This last and highest branch of animals is divided 
into seven or eight classes. The department of 
Zoology which relates to the class fishes, and the two 
or three classes below it is called Ichthyology. The 
next class above fishes is the amphibians, represented 
by the toad; and the next higher is the reptiles; Her¬ 
petology relates to these two classes. The next class 
is birds, and knowledge of birds is called Ornithology. 
The highest class is mammalia, and Mammalogy relates 
to it. The highest order of mammalia is the primates 
with the family, man at the head. 

Geology. Knowledge of the structure of the 
earth’s crust and of the formation of the rocks compos¬ 
ing it, together with knowledge of the history of the 
successive changes in the physical features of the earth 
is called Geology. 


Cenozoic I Mammals 


28 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 




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AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


2 9 


Throughout geologic time, heat and water have 
been active agents in geologic changes. Heat in 
rock-making, upheavals, etc., and water in erosion 
(eating away), and stratification (formation in layers). 

That part of Geology which relates to rocks and 
soils is aided by Mineralogy and Chemistry. 

Geologic time is divided into four eras. The 
archaean is the most ancient, and is destitute of fossils. 
The palaeozoic is distinguished by fossils of inverte¬ 
brate animals, fishes and coal plants. The mesozoic is 
marked by fossils of reptiles, and the cenozoic by fos¬ 
sils of mammals. It is by fossils that geologic time is 
divided, and consequently knowledge of fossils forms 
the basis of this department of Geology. Knowledge 
of fossils, or petrified animals and plants is called Pal¬ 
aeontology. Palaeontology is strictly speaking a branch 
of Biology; but owing to its relation to Geology, we 
place it as in the above outline. 

Geography. The sub-division Geography em¬ 
braces such knowledge of the earth as is shown by 
Outline IX. 


OUTLINE IX. 


Geography 


Political 


Physical 


Mathematical 


Distribution 


Divisions 


Distribution 


Climatology 


Water 


Land 


Representation 


Circles 


Religion 

Occupation 

Government 

Society 


Man 

Animals 

Plants 


Glaciers 

Currents 

Tides 

Divisions 

Earthquakes 

Volcanoes 

Divisions 


Maps, etc. 

Zones 

Longitude 

Latitude 


Movements 


Form and Size 















HUMAN CONDUCT. 


31 


Mathematical Geography relates to the earth’s 
form, size, movements, division by circles, giving 
latitude, longitude and zones, and to representation 
by maps, globes and charts. 

Physical Geography relates to the natural divisions 
of the land, and considers volcanoes and earthquakes; 
it also relates to the natural divisions of water, and con¬ 
siders the tides and currents of the ocean, as well as 
glaciers. It includes the branch of knowledge called 
Climatology (knowledge of climate), and relates to 
the distribution of living things over the earth. 

Political Geography relates to the political divis¬ 
ions of the earth, as well as to the distribution over the 
earth of the various classes of society, and kinds of 
government, occupation, and religion. 


MAN. 

“Know then thyself, presume not God to scan, 

The proper study of mankind is man.”— Pope. 

H aving considered the first division, or knowledge 
of the world, we come to the consideration of know- 
edge of man; and first of 

Man Physically. The branches of knowledge 
of man considered physically are shown by Outline X. 


3* 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


OUTLINE X. 
Anthropology I Ethnology 


^Etiology 


Germ Theory 


Medicine 


Therapeutics 


Methods 
Materia Medica 
Pharmacy 
Surgery | Dentistry 


Veterinary 


Pathology 


Prognosis 

Diagnosis 

Symptomatology 


Man 

Physically 


Hygiene 


Vaccination and Quarantine 

Drainage and Sewerage 

Disinfection 

Ventilation 

Gymnastics 

Bathing 

Clothing 

Food and Drink 


Phrenology 


Physiognomy 


Physiology 


Comparative Physiology 


Morphology 


Anatomy 


Comparative Anatomy 


Embryology 










AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


33 


Knowledge of the structure of living things is 
called Anatomy. Knowledge of structure is a knowl¬ 
edge of the make-up of organs, and the arrangement 
of the same in an organized body. Comparative 
Anatomy compares the anatomy of man with that of 
the lower animals. 

Knowledge of the processes which take place in 
living things and of the functions of organs in the same 
is called Physiology. Comparative Physiology com¬ 
pares the physiology of man with that of the lower 
animals. Closely related to Anatomy and Physiology 
are Embryology, knowledge of the embryo and its de¬ 
velopment, and Morphology which is a knowledge of 
correspondence of organs, or parts in different animals. 

We now come to Phrenology which may be 
defined as knowledge of the relations between the 
structure of the head and the character of the indi¬ 
vidual. Physiognomy is a branch of Phrenology 
which relates to the determination of the character 
of a person by the form and expression of the face. 

The fourth branch of knowledge of man physic¬ 
ally is Hygiene which is the knowledge of preserva¬ 
tion of health, and prevention of disease. The princi¬ 
pal subjects to which flygiene relates are shown by the 
above outline. 

Knowledge of diseases, or unnatural conditions of 
the human body, and of the cure or alleviation of the 
same is called Medicine. Pathology, the first division 
of Medicine in our classification, is often used in a sense 
making it synonymous with Medicine. As here used, 
it may be defined as the name for knowledge of phe¬ 
nomena of diseases, and the nature and course of the 


34 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


same. It includes: Symptomatology (knowledge of 
symptoms) . Diagnosis (discovery of nature and seat of 
disease), and Prognosis (the foretelling of the course of 
disease). 

Theraputics is the name for knowledge of the 
treatment of diseases. It includes: Surgery (the treat¬ 
ment of diseases by operation), Pharmacy (the knowl¬ 
edge of drugs and their preparation), Materia Medica 
(the application of drugs in treatment), and Methods? 
by which we mean knowledge of the various methods 
or systems of treatment. 

^Etiology, the third and last division of Medicine, 
considers the causes of diseases, including the germ 
theory. Veterinary is closely related to Medicine, 
being the application of the principles of the same to 
domestic animals. 

The last branch of knowledge o f man 'physically 
is Anthropology. It considers the origin of man, his 
relation to the world around him, and particularly to 
the lower animals; his migrations, and those differences 
which separate his kind into races. The part of An¬ 
thropology which is concerned with races, is called 
Ethnology. 

Man Socially. This sub-division of knowledge 
of man considers him in his relations to his fellows. 
The branches and sub-branches appear in Outline XI. 


OUTLINE XI. 


Man 

Socially 


History | Biography 


Archaeology 


Law 


Statute 

Common 


Contracts 

Torts 

Crimes 


Exchange 


Political Economy 


Distribution 


Free Trade and Protection 

Banking 

Finance 

Taxes 

Interest and Rent 

1 Wages 


Consumption 


Public 

Private 


Production 


Machinery 
Capital and Labor 


Politics 


Statistics 
Political Parties 
Warfare 


Government 


Society 
Domestic Life 
Amusements 

Professions 


Occupations 


Arts 


Education 


Language 


Commerce 
Manufactures 
Mining, etc. 
Agriculture 

Pedagogics 

Philology 

Rhetoric 

Grammar 


Decentralization 


Branches 

Constitutions 

Functions 

Forms 


Judicial 

Executive 

Legislative 


Democratic 

Aristocratic 

Monarchial 


Fine 


Poetry 

Oratory and Acting 

Music 

Painting 

Sculpture 

Architecture 


Useful 


/ 





























.. 










* 






























































































































HUMAN CONDUCT. 


37 


Language is the instrument of communication be¬ 
tween mankind. Under this branch of knowledge is 
included the three sub-branches: Grammar, Rhetoric, 
and Philology. Grammar is the name for knowledge 
of the correct formation and use of words in the ex¬ 
pression of thought. Rhetoric is the name for knowl¬ 
edge of correct and effectual discourse. Philology is 
the name for knowledge of the origin of language, of 
the development of particular languages, and of the 
relation of different languages to one another. 

Education 45, is the process of developing and disci¬ 
plining mankind; and pedagogics, or teaching, is an 
important sub-branch of the subject. 

The first branch of occupations is agriculture, 
which is the cultivation of the soil for the raising of 
vegetable products, and the rearing of domestic animals. 

The second branch of occupations includes min¬ 
ing, quarrying, fisheries, lumbering, hunting, ice-pack¬ 
ing, etc., in all of which man is engaged in secur¬ 
ing those natural products of land and water which 
exist without his aid. Manufactures is the preparation 
of natural products for use; and it includes all kinds 
of preparation, building, and construction of which 
men make a business. 

Commerce includes: every kind of business which 
engages mankind in the buying and selling, or exchange 
of property, this branch of commerce is often desig¬ 
nated trade; in the transportation of property and 
persons, as shipping, railroading, express business, 
canal business, and staging; in furnishing facilities for 
intercourse between countries and parts of the same 

*See Chapter on Education. 


38 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


country, as the telegraph, telephone, newspaper, and 
hotel business, and the post office system; and in facili¬ 
tating any and all these kinds of business, as banking, 
brokerage, insurance, boards of trade, and coining or 
manufacture of money. 

Arts are those occupations which are based on a 
system of rules for producing results. Useful arts are 
those in which material results are accomplished. This 
division of arts is sometimes called industrial arts; 
and those arts of this division, which depend more on 
manual skill than systematic rules, are sometimes called 
mechanic arts or trades', also those arts of this divi¬ 
sion, wherein the work is principally done by ma¬ 
chinery, are sometimes called mechanic arts . In this 
classification, we will consider under useful arts only 
those occupations which can not properly come under 
the head of manufactures; such as printing, telegraphy, 
photography, and taxidermy. 

Fine arts are those in which aesthetic results are 
produced. The word art is generally used instead of 
fine arts . Architecture is the art of building; sculpt¬ 
ure is the art of carving, engraving, or casting images; 
painting is the art of representation on a plane surface 
by drawing, invention, relief, perspective, and color; 
music is the art of arranging successions of sounds with 
a pleasing effect, or the execution of the same; oratory 
and acting are the arts of expression and representation 
upon the platform and stage; and poetry is the art of 
expressing imaginative thought with pleasing effect. 

Professions are those occupations which are based 
upon branches of knowledge or science. In those 
occupations men are engaged either in imparting the 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


39 


knowledge which they profess, or in making a useful 
application of their knowledge to the wants of man. 
We have besides the three 66 learned professions,” medi¬ 
cine, law and theology, the professions of teaching, of 
lecturing, and of writing, where the business is the im¬ 
parting of knowledge professed; and such professions 
as surveying, engineering, aeronautics, and navigation 
where science is applied to useful purposes. 

Amusements. Under this branch is included 
knowledge of all the diversions, entertainments, festi¬ 
vals, games, pastimes, recreations, and sports which 
engage mankind. 

Domestic Life. This fifth branch of knowledge 
of man socially relates to marriage, and the various 
home relations. 

Society.* We use this term to name the next 
branch of knowledge of man socially. In its broadest 
sense, the term society covers all the various phases of 
relationship of mankind to one another; but here we 
use it as a name for those immediate relations outside 
the family; and perhaps those relations are best ex¬ 
pressed as man’s relations to his neighbors. This 
branch includes knowledge of the various religious, 
philanthropic, secret, and other social organizations; 
and knowledge of the social fashions and usages of 
mankind. 

Politics. This branch considers man in the various 
relations of citizenship. The first sub-branch is govern¬ 
ment, by which term we mean those systems which form 
ag-crreofates of mankind into nations or states, and con- 

oo o 7 

trol and protect them. Knowledge of government in- 

*See Chapter on Society. 


4° 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


eludes, first, a knowledge of the different forms, viz.: 
monarchial, aristocratic, and democratic; next, of the 
functions of government; third, of constitutions; 
fourth, of the branches, viz.: legislative, executive, 
and judicial; and lastly of decentralization, by which 
is meant the division of government, as in our country, 
into municipal, county, state, and national. 

The second sub-branch is warfare, which relates 
to the organization and maintenance of armies and 
navies, and to the fighting of battles. 

The third sub-branch is concerned with political 
parties. 

The fourth is statistics, which is the name for col¬ 
lected and tabulated facts concerning man socially. 

The fifth and last sub-branch of politics is political 
economy, which is the name for knowledge of the pro¬ 
duction, consumption, distribution, and exchange of 
wealth. Knowledge of production includes a knowl¬ 
edge of capital, labor, machinery, and their relations. 
Consumption is known as either private or public. 
Knowledge of distribution includes a knowledge of 
wages, interest, rents, and taxes; and knowledge of 
exchange includes finance, banking, free trade, and 
protection. 

Law. The term law comprehends all the rules 
and principles which government adopts relative to the 
conduct of mankind. It is divided into common law , 
and statute law . By common law is meant, that law 
which does not exist by legislative enactment, but by 
common consent and immemorial usage; it is some¬ 
times called the unwritten law. Statute law exists by 
legislative enactment, and is sometimes called the 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


4 1 


written law. Both the common and statute law relate 
to three principal subjects, viz.: crimes, torts (wrongs) 
and contracts. 

Archaeology is the name for knowledge of ancient 
mankind, and of the written, monumental and tra¬ 
ditional relics which furnish the knowledge. 

History* is the written record of the sayings and 
doings of mankind; and Biography is the history of 
individuals. 

Man Mentally. The last subdivision of knowl¬ 
edge relates to the manifestation of force, called 
thought; or to the phenomena of mind and its produc¬ 
tions. The branches and sub-branches are shown by 
Outline XII. 


*See Chapter on History, 


OUTLINE XII. 


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42 


Literature 











HUMAN CONDUCT. 


43 


Literature* comprises the entire written thought 
of mankind. 

Psychology is the name for knowledge of the phe¬ 
nomena of mind. The term mental philosophy is 
sometimes used to mean the same. There are three 
classes of mind phenomena, viz.: the phenomena of 
knowing, the phenomena of feeling, and the phenomena 
of willing. The mind, in this connection, is sometimes 
spoken of as having three parts, viz.: intellect, sensi¬ 
bility, and will. There are different forms of knowing, 
feeling, and willing; and these are called faculties of 
the mind. The three classes of mind phenomena 
spoken of above give us three sub-branches: Logic 
based on knowing, ^Esthetics on feeling, and Ethics 
on feeling and willing. 

Logic is the name for knowledge of correct reason¬ 
ing. ^Esthetics considers the relations between feeling 
and the beautiful . Ethicsf is the name for knowledge 
of right conduct; and this department of knowledge is 
sometimes called moral Philosophy, also the science of 
Duty. 

Metaphysics. “ Consider it well, Metaphysics is 
the attempt of the mind to rise above the mind; to en¬ 
viron and shut in, or as we say, comprehend the mind. 
Hopeless struggle, for the wisest as for the foolishest! 
What strength of sinew, or athletic skill, will enable 
the stoutest athlete to fold his own body in his arms, 
and, by lifting, lift up himself?” Thomas Carlyle. 

“The Power which the universe manifests to us is 
utterly inscrutable.” Herbert Spencer , 

♦See Chapter on Literature. 

|See Chapter on Ethics. 


44 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


“In ultimate analysis everything is incomprehensi¬ 
ble.” Thomas II. Huxley. 

“Man can not know causes, but he can know 
effects.” — 

“The Infinite can not be known by the Finite; 
man can only know phenomena.” 

George Henry Lewes. 

“Canst thou by searching find out God?” — 

“Behold God is great, and we know him not.”— 

“ Touching the Almighty, we can not find him 
out.” — 

“ How unsearchable are his judgments, and his 
ways past finding out!” Bible. 

The term Metaphysics is significant, meaning, as 
it does, beyond Physics. As the name of the third 
branch of knowledge of man mentally , we will define 
it to mean, knowledge of man’s speculations and opin¬ 
ions regarding the tmknown and the unknowable. The 
term Philosophy is sometimes used in place of the term 
Metaphysics, and the latter is often confused with the 
term Psychology. 

Metaphysics has to do, first, with the question of 
first cause; second, with the question of final ends; 
and third, with the question of the esse?ice of things. 
These three questions form the three departments of 
Metaphysics as shown in the above outline, where 
appear the questions of each department. 

Cosmogony is the name for the department of 
Metaphysics concerned with the question of the first 
cause , and the one question of this department more 
familiarly stated is: What is the origin of the world? 

Teleology is the department of Metaphysics con- 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


45 


cerned with the question of final ends , and the common 
form which this question takes is: Does the world 
manifest design? 

Ontology is the department of Metaphysics con¬ 
cerned with being , or with the esse?ice of things. 
Here we have six questions: First, Is there any cer¬ 
tainty to knowledge ? Second, What is matter ? Third, 
What is life? Fourth, What is mind? out of which 
question grow questions concerning spirit , or mind 
separate from body with the phase clairvoyance. Fifth, 
What is force? Sixth, What is the nature of God? 

Religion. This department of knowledge is partly 
ethical* and partly metaphysical; hence we place it as 
it appears in the above outline. Under religion is 
comprehended a knowledge of the hopes, fears, beliefs, 
faiths, and theories of mankind concerning superhuman 
beings and powers, also concerning existence after 
death. 

Knowledge of religion includes Superstition and 
Theology. Superstition is the form which religious 
thought takes when dominated by ignorance, fear, or 
imagination. It includes: Mythology, knowledge of 
religious fables; Astrology, the astronomy of supersti¬ 
tion; Alchemy, the chemistry of superstition; Magic, 
the alleged bringing of supernatural powers to aid in 
the performance of the wonderful; Mysticism, belief 
in the possible acquisition of knowledge of the mys¬ 
teries of being, especially Divine Being by supernatu¬ 
ral illumination . 

Theology. Knowledge of the theories and system¬ 
atized beliefs of mankind concerning the relations be- 

*See Chapter on Ethics. 


46 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


tween the superhuman and the human, between God 
and man is called Theology. Dogmatic Theology is 
based on supposed revelation, and Natural Theology on 
the manifestations of nature. 

Philosophy. We have now come to the fourth 
and last branch of knowledge of man mentally , the 
highest branch of knowledge. Philosophy considers 
the relations of everything to everything else. It 
views the world and man and all that is comprehended 
under these, in all their diversity, as unity. It forms 
human knowledge into one great and harmonious 
whole. Philosophy is the name for all knowledge 
completely systematized. We have already stated 
under Metaphysics, that the term Philosophy is used in 
place of the term Metaphysics. This use of the term 
Philosophy, as also the use of the terms natural phi - 
losophy , ?nental philosophy , and moral philosophy in 
place of the terms Physics, Psychology, and Ethics, 
respectively, tends to confusion. Hence the importance 
of using the term Philosophy only as the name of the 
highest branch of knowledge. 

Evolution is the name for the continuous series of 
changes produced by the modes of force called gravi¬ 
tation, molecular force, atomic force, vital force, and 
thought, which has wrought from chaos the existing 
world and man. It is also a name for a system of phi¬ 
losophy based on the fact of evolution, which system 
ol Philosophy is the system of our age and time. 

We will now recapitulate by showing our entire 
survey of human knowledge in Outline XIII. 





BOOKS. 


« 


ft 


CHAPTER IV. 


BOOKS. 


“All that men have devised, discovered, done, felt or imagined lies recorded 
in books; wherein whoso has learned the mystery of spelling printed letters may find 
it and appropriate it.”— Thomas Carlyle. 

DOOKS are the storehouses of human knowledge, 
' and by the judicious reading of them a liberal 
acquisition of knowledge may be had. The average 
man or woman, by devoting spare moments to reading 
well selected books, by observing men and things care¬ 
fully as they have opportunity, no matter what their 
occupation, and by earnestly thinking on what they 
read and what they observe, may in a few years of 
time acquire a liberal education. The following list of 
books is recommended to furnish such an outlook upon 
the field of human knowledge, as all should have; and 
these books or their equivalent should be in every 
family library. In the acquisition of knowledge by 
reading, two works which are repositories of general 
knowledge are of first importance: Webster’s Una¬ 
bridged Dictionary, and a Cyclopedia. I recommend 
Johnson’s Cyclopedia. Read the articles in Johnson’s 
or some other cyclopedia on the subdivisions and 
branches of knowledge as given in the “ Survey,’’ 
Chapter III. 


52 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

On Mathematics. 

School text-books will have to be used as we have 
no comprehensive works outside of them. Greenleaf’s 
series is good, but it is not complete. Davies’ series is 
complete. We need a comprehensive work in one vol¬ 
ume giving the elementary principles of all the branches 
of Mathematics. 

On Astronomy. 

Read: 

Recreations in Astronomy. 

By 71. IV. Warren, D. D. 

Popular Astronomy. 

By Simon Newcomb , ZZ. D. 

Other Worlds Than Ours. 

By Richard A. Proctor. 


On Physics. 

Ganot’s Elementary Treatise on Physics. 

Translated and edited by E. Atkinson. 

Fragments of Science. 

By John Tyndall , LL. D. 

The New Physics. 

By John Trowbridge. 

On Chemistry. 


Text-book of Elementary Chemistry. 

By George F. Barker, M. D. 

The New Chemistry. 


By Josiah P. Cooke. 


Knowledge 


Mentally 


Man 


Socially 


2 Physically 


Geography 


i 


Geology 


Biology 


The World 


Mineralogy 

Chemistry 


Physics 


Philosophy 


Metaphysics 


Psychology 

Literature 

History 

Archaeology 

Law 


Politics 


Society 
Domestic Life 
Amusements 


Occupations 


Education 

Language 

Anthropology 


Medicine 


Hygiene 


| Evolution 


Ontology 


Teleology 

Cosmogony 

Ethics 

/Esthetics 

Logic 



What is the nature of God? 

What is force ? 

What is mind? | Spirit? | Clairvoyance? 
What is life? 

What is matter? 

Is there any certainty to knowledge ? 

[ Does the world manifest design ? 

| What is the origin of the world ? 


Religion 


Theology 


Natural 

Dogmatic 


Superstition 


Mysticism 

Magic 

Alchemy 

Astrology 

Mythology 


. . . Thought 


| Biography 


Statute 

Common 


Contracts 

Torts 

Crimes 


Exchange 


Political Economy 


Statistics 
Political Parties 
Warfare 


Government 


Distribution 

Consumption 

Production 

I Decentralization 

Branches 

Constitutions 

Functions 

Forms 


Free Trade and Protection 

Banking 

Finance 

Taxes 

Interest and Rent 
Wages 

| Public 
I Private 

Machinery 
Capital and Labor 


Judicial 

Executive 

Legislative 


Democratic 

Aristocratic 

Monarchial 


Professions 


Arts 


Fine 


I'seful 

Commerce 
Manufactures 
Mining, etc. 

Agriculture 

Pedagogics 

Philology 

Rhetoric 

Grammar 


Ethnology 

/Etiology 


Therapeutics 


Pathology 

Vaccination and Quarantine 

Drainage and Sewerage 

Disinfection 

Ventilation 

Gymnastics 

Bathing 

Clothing 

Food and Drink 


Germ Theory 

Methods 
Materia Medica 
Pharmacy 

Surgery | Dentistry 

Prognosis 

Diagnosis 

Symptomatology 


Poetry 

Oratory and Acting 

Music 

Painting 

Sculpture 

Architecture 


Veterinary 


Phrenology 

Physiology- 

Anatomy 


j Physiognomy 
j Comparative Physiology- 
| Comparative Anatomy- 


Political 


Distribution 

Divisions 

Distribution 


Physical 


Climatology 

Water 


Land 


Mathematical 


Geologic Time 


Rocks and Soils 


Geologic Changes 


Representation 

Circles 

Movements 
Form and Size 

Cenozoic 

Mesozoic 

Palaeozoic 

Archaean 


By Water 
By Heat 

Vertebrata 


Zoology- 


Botany 


Tunicata 

Arthropoda 

Mollusca 

Worms 

Echinodermata 

Coelenterata 

Sponges 

Protozoa 

Phenogams 

Cryptogams 


Crystallography 

Organic 

Inorganic 

Aurora 
Lightning 
Rainbow 

Storms 

Sttow, Sleet and Ice 
Dew and Frost 
Rain 
Clouds 

Fogs and Mists 
Winds 

Electricity 
Magnetism 
Light 
Heat 
Sounds 


Meterology 


Morphology 

Embryology 

I Religion 
Occupations 
Government 
I Society 


Man 

Animals 

Plants 


I Glaciers 

Tides and Currents 
Divisions 

| Volcanoes and Earthquakes 
I Divisions 

| Maps, etc. 

| Zones 

I latitude and longitude 


Mammals 


| Reptiles 

Coal Period 
Fishes 

Invertebrate Animals 


Palaeontology 


I Stratification 
I Erosion 

| Upheavals, etc. 
Rock-making 

Mammalogy- 
Ornithology 
Herpetology 
i Ichthyology- 


Entomology 

Conchology 


Exogens 

Endogens 

Acrogens 

Thallogens 

Protophytes 


I 


Water Spouts 
Tornadoes 
Cyclones 
Hurricanes 


Vital Force 


Atomic Force 


Molecular Force 


Force 


Matter 


Stellar 


Mechanical Powers 


Equilibrium 

Motion 

Gases 

Liquids 

Solids 

Nebulae 

Constellations 

Meteors 

Comets 


Astronomy- 


Solar 


Planets 


Sun 


o 

s 



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u 

rt 


Analysis 

c- 

c n 

Mathematics 


*-T 


Geometry- 

£ 

£ 


Arithmetic 


Calculus 

Analytical Geometry 
Algebra 

Conic Sections 
Trigonometry 


Hydrostatic Press 
Jointed Links 
Inclined Plane 
Lever 


Southern 

Equatorial 

Northern 

Aerolites 


Neptune 

Uranus 

Saturn 

Jupiter 

Asteroids 

Mars 

Earth | Moon 

Venus 

Mercury 


Gravitation 

































































































N umber, Space, Time 





— , . 




^h—. -r ... 






_ 


































AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


S3 


On Mineralogy. 

A First Book of Mineralogy. 

By J. H. Collins. 

A System of Mineralogy. 

By James D. Dana. 

On Biology. 

On the Study of Biology in American Addresses and 
in Lay Sermons, etc. 

By Thomas H. Huxley, LL. D. 

Origin of Species. 

By Charles R. Darwin. 


BOTANY. 


Outlines of Plant Life. 

By J. H. Withe. 

Descriptive Botany. 

By Eliza A. Youmans. 


ZOOLOGY. 

Elements of Zoology. 

By C. F. Holder and J. B. Holder , M. D. 

An Introduction to the Classification of Animals. 

By Thomas H. Huxley. 


On Geology. 

The Geological Story Briefly Told. 

By James D. Dana f LL. D. 

The Story of the Earth and Man. 

By J. W. Dawson, LL. D. 


54 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


The Students’ Elements of Geology. 

By Sir Charles Lyell. 

Geological Sketches. 

By Louis Agassiz. 


Palaeontology. 


By Richard. Owen. 


On Geography. 

Select from the school text-books and atlases. 
Warren’s Common School Geography is a good single 
volume work on the subject and answers for an atlas. 

Read Bayard Taylor’s Travels for descriptive 
Geography. 


On Knowledge of the World (generally). 

Cosmos. 

By Alexander Humbolt. 

On Physical Man. 

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Elementary Anatomy and Physiology. 

By Edward Hitchcock, LL. D., and Edward Hitchcock, Jr., M. D. 

The Physiology of Common Life. 

By G. H. Lewes . 

Huxley and Youman’s Physiology and Hygiene. 

By Tho?nas H. Huxley, LL. D., and William J. You?nans, M. D. 


The Handbook of Household Science. 

By Edward L. Youmans, M. D . 


Our Digestion. 
How To Get Strong. 


By Dio Lewis . 


By William Blaikie • 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


55 


PHRENOLOGY. 

Fowler’s Works. 

By O. S. Fowler . 

Phrenology Made Easy. 

By A. L. Ferry. 

MEDICINE. 

There is need of a popular work on Medicine; not 
written from the standpoint of a particular school, but 
with a broad view of the whole subject. 

The New Cyclopedia of Family Medicine, edited 
by George M. Beard, M. D., is the best popular manual 
of Medicine I have seen. Read: 

Modern Inquiries. 

By Jacob Bigelow, M. D. 

Plain Home Talk and Medical Common Sense. 

By E. B. Foote, M. D. 


VETERINARY. 

The Farmers’ Veterinary Adviser. 

By Ja?nes Law , Professor of Veterinary Science. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature. 

By T. H. Huxley. 

The Descent of Man. 

By Charles R. Darwin. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

The Natural History of Man. 

By James C. Prichard\ F. R. S* 


5 6 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

On Man Socially. 

GRAMMAR. 

KerPs Comprehensive Grammar. 

By Simon Kerl', A. M. 

Words and Their Uses. 

By Richard Grant White. 

The English Grammar of William Cobbett and the 
Verbalist. 

By Alfred Ayres. 

RHETORIC. 

Principles of Rhetoric. 

By A. S. Hill. 

The Art of Speech. Volume I. 

By L. T. Townsend, D. D. 

PHILOLOGY. 

Lectures on the Science of Language. 

By Max Muller, M. A. 

The Life and Growth of Language. 

By W. D. Whitney. 


EDUCATION. 

Self Culture. 

By James Freeman Clarke. 

Culture Demanded by Modern Life. 

By E. L. Youtnans. 


OCCUPATIONS. 

The Great Industries of the United States. 

By Horace Greely and others. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


57 


A Short History of Art. 

By Julia B. De Forest. 

Oratory — The Art of Speech. Volume II., Part i. 

By L. T. Townsend. 


AMUSEMENTS. 

Festivals, Games, and Amusements. (Ancient and 
Modern.) 

By Horatio Smith. 

Hoyle’s Games. 

By Thomas Frere. 

DOMESTIC LIFE. 

Plain Home Talk and Medical Common Sense. 

By E. B. Foote, M. D. 

Essay on Domestic Life in Society and Solitude. 

By R. IV. Emerson. 

Marriage — Divorce, in Prose Works. 

By John Milton. 

SOCIETY. 

Society and Solitude. 

By R. W. Emerson. 

Past and Present. 

By Thomas Carlyle. 


POLITICS. 

Politics for Young Americans. 

By Charles Nordhoff. 


Social Statics. 


By Herbert Spencer, 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 



War — in Prose Works. 

By John Milton. 

The True Grandeur of Nations. 

By Charles Sumner. 

Chartism. 

By Thomas Carlyle. 

Chapters on Socialism. 

By John Stuart Mill. 

Social Problems. 

By Henry George. 

Principles of Political Economy. 

By Simon Newcomb, LL. D. 

Political Economy. 

By Francis A. Walker . 

Principles of Political Economy, by John Stuart Mill, 
abridged, with a sketch of the history of Political 
Economy. 

By J. L. Laughlin. 

Unto This Last: Four Essays on the First Principles 
of Political Economy. 

By John Ruskin. 

The Crown of Wild Olive. Three Lectures on Work, 
Traffic, and War. 

By John Ruskin. 

Time and Tide — The Laws of Work. 

By John Ruskin. 

The A B C of Finance. 

By Simon Newcomb. 

Read the Novels: 

Hard Times. 

By Charles Dickens. 
Put Yourself in His Place. 

By Charles Reade . 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


59 


LAW. 

Read: Ewell’s Essentials of the Law and The 
Students Kent. 

ARCHEOLOGY. 

Prehistoric Times. 

By Sir John Lubbock. 

HISTORY. 

Abbotts’ Histories as follows: 

Cyrus the Great. 

Alexander the Great. 

Julius Caesar. 

Alfred the Great. 

William the Conqueror. 

George Washington. 

Napoleon Bonaparte. 

By Jacob Abbott and John S. C. Abbott. 

The History of Charlemagne. 

By G. P. R. James. 

Lectures on Heroes. 

By Thomas Carlyle. 

A Manual of Ancient History. 

By M. E. Thalheimer. 

A Manual of Mediaeval and Modern History. 

By M. E. Thalheimer 

Historical Chart. 

By Azel S. Lyman. 

History of Greece. 


By T. T. Timayenis % 


6o 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


A Smaller History of Rome. 

By William. Smilh and Eugene Lawrence. 

History of England. 

By Charles Dickens. 

History of England. 

By Thomas B. Macaulay. 

A Popular History of the United States of America. 

By John C. Ridpath, LL. D. 

Read the following Historical Novels: 

Antonia. (On the fall of Rome.) 

By Wilkie Collins. 

Hypatia. (On Alexandria early in the Fifth Century.) 

By Charles Kingsley. 

The Talisman. (On the Third Crusade.) 

By Sir Walter Scott. 

Kenilworth. (On the times of Elizabeth.) 

By Sir Walter Scott. 

Lionel Lincoln. (On the American Revolution.) 

By J. Fenimore Cooper . 

A Tale of Two Cities. (On the French Revolution.) 

By Charles Dickens. 

Les Miserables. (On the Battle of Waterloo.) 

By Victor Hugo. 

War and Peace. (Napoleon and Russia.) 

By Lyof N. Tolstoi. 


BIOGRAPHY. 

Plutarch’s Lives. 
Johnson’s Lives of the Poets. 
Boswell’s Life of Johnson. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


61 


On Man Mentally. 

LITERATURE. 

Ancient Literature. 

By John D. Qtiackenbos, A. M. 

English Literature. 

By Rev. Stopford Brooke. 

American Literature. 

By Charles F. Richardson . 

Read the Important Works and Masterpieces of 
Literature. See Table of, next chapter. 

PSYCHOLOGY. 

Outlines of Psychology. 

By James Sully, A. M. 

The Study of Psychology. 

By George Henry Lewes. 

Principles of Mental Physiology. 

By William B. Carpenter, LL. D. 


Logic . 

The Art of Speech. Volume II., Part 2. 

By Z. T. Townsend. 


Ethics . 

Bain’s Moral Science. 

The Conduct of Life. 

By R. W. Emerson. 

Utilitarianism. 

By J. S. Mill. 

The Data of Ethics. 


By Herbert Spencer* 


6 2 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


METAPHYSICS. 

Biographical History of Philosophy — Ancient and 
Modern. 

By George Henry Lewes. 

Problems of Life and Mind. 

By G. H. Lewes. 

Intuitions of the Mind. 

By James M 1 Cosh. 

Outline Study of Man. 

By Mark Hopkins. 

Conscience. 

By Joseph Cook. 


RELIGION. 

The Origin of Animal Worship — an Essay. 

By Herbert Spencer. 

Essays on Religion. 

By J. S. Mill. 

The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge. 

By John Bisk- 

Ten Great Religions. 

By Ja?nes Freeman Clarke 


PHILOSOPHY. 

Bacon’s Advancement of Learning. 

The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte. 

Translated by Harriet Martineau. 

Herbert Spencer’s Synthetic Philosophy. 
Lectures on Evolution in American Addresses. 

By Thomas H. Huxley . 








































































LITERATURE 









CHAPTER V. 


LITERATURE. 

IN its widest sense, Literature comprises all the written 
A thoughts of mankind upon all subjects in all times. 
The term Literature as generally used means the best 
written thought of the best thinkers, which is preserved 
to us in books. We present the subject Literature 
by means of the following tables and chart, consider¬ 
ing first, authors; second, masterpieces and important 
works; third, departments; and fourth, divisions, etc. 
The Table of Authors includes the great names of the 
prominent Literatures of the world, and some of the 
lesser names, particularly of our own Literature. It 
has been our aim to include in the table all the names 
down to the last birth date given, which an American 
general student of Literature need have some knowledge 
of; but no doubt names, belonging to the lesser lights 
of Literature, have been omitted, that are well worthy 
to be included. The names are arranged in the order 
of the date of birth, and are numbered consecutively. 
The number of each name is used with the name each 
time it occurs in the other tables and in the chart; also 
all the names appear in the index with their respective 
table numbers. By this arrangement any name in the 
Table of Authors can be readily found. The first column 


68 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


after the names shows the century in which the author 
lived; the second and third columns give the years of 
birth and death; the fourth column shows the particular 
Literature to which the author belongs, that is, the 
Literature of what language; the fifth column shows 
the department of Literature in which the author’s name 
is most prominent; the sixth column gives the name 
of the author’s masterpiece or important work, and the 
last column shows the birthplace. 


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70 






































































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72 










































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73 




































MODERN AUTHORS. 


W 

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74 











































































MODERN AUTHORS.— Continued. 


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MODERN AUTHORS.— Continued. 


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French . . 
German . . 
German . . 
English . . 
American . 
English . . 
English . . 
German . . 
German . . 
English . . 
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79 
























































MODERN AUTHORS.— Continued. 


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88 

























































HUMAN CONDUCT. 


89 


The Table of Important Works and Masterpieces 
of Literature gives, first, the century in which the work 
was produced, then the title of the work or masterpiece, 
and lastly the author’s number. By means of the author’s 
number, reference can be made to the Table of Authors 
for the name of the author, and the other particulars 
there shown. 

This table gives in order, based on the birth date 
of the author, all the great masterpieces and conspicuous 
works of Literature, together with some works though 
not as famous yet of great importance. There are ten 
titles of works given in this table, after which no author’s 
number will be found. It will be seen, that, with the 
exception of the New Testament, these are writings or 
collections of writing, the author’s of which are un¬ 
known. 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


TABLE OF IMPORTANT WORKS AND MASTERPIECES OF 

LITERATURE. 


Century. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

20th 

Prisse Papyrus .. 

1 

• • • 

Book of the Dead (Egyptian Bible) . 





13th 

Code of Manu . 

5 

10th 

The Iliad . 

7 

6 th 

./Esop’s Fables . 

12 

• • • 

The Road to Virtue . 

14 

• • • 

The Analects. 

15 

• • • 

Discourses of Buddha. 

16 

• • • 

Prometheus Chained. 

17 

• • • 

The Avesta (Persian Bible). 


• • • 

The Old Testament . 

19 

5 th 

King (Edipus . 

20 

• • • 

The Medea . 

21 

• • • 

The Graeco-Persian War . * * . . 

22 

• • • 

History of the Peloponnesian War . 

23 

4th 

The Clouds . 

27 

• • ■ 

The Anabasis . 

28 

• • • 

Memorabilia of Socrates . 

28 

• • • 

Phaedo . 

29 

• • • 

On the Crown . 

31 

• • • 

The Metaphysics . * * . . 

32 

• • • 

The Fourth Shoo. 

33 

3d 

Ramayana. 

37 

• • • 

The Captives. 

38 

2d 

The Self Tormentor. 

40 

• • • 

Mahabharata . 

41 

1st 

Philippics . 

42 

• • • 

Caesar’s Commentaries . 

43 

• • • 

The Hineid . 

48 

1st 

Jewish Antiquities . 

57 

• • • 

Sakoontala . 

58 

2d 

Parallel Lives . 

60 

• • • 

The Talmud (Hebrew Traditions) . 


• • • 

Aurelius’ Meditations . 

65 

4th 

The New Testament . 


5 th 

The Panchatantra (Hindoo Fables) . 


• • • 

On the City of God . 

72 

6 th 

Consolation of Philosophy . 

73 

























































AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


9 1 


TABLE OF IMPORTANT WORKS AND MASTERPIECES OF 

LITER ATU R E .—Co n tin ned. 


Century. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

7 th 

The Koran. 

75 

11th 

Shah-Namah. 

76 

• • • 

The Assemblies. 

77 

13th 

Sum of Theology. 

78 

• • • 

The Eddas (Collection of Scandinavian Poems and Tales) 

• • • 

• • • 

Nibelungen Lied (Annonyrnous German Epic Poem) . . 

• • • 

14th 

The Divine Comedy. 

79 

• • • 

Traveller’s Tales. 

80 

• • • 

Decamerone. 

82 

• • • 

Froissart’s Chronicles. 

84 

• • • 

Canterbury Tales. 

85 

15th 

The Sagas (Scandinavian Traditons). 


• • • 

The Arabian Nights (A Collection of Tales). 


• • • 

Orlando Furioso. 

89 

• • • 

Utopia. 

90 

16th 

Gargantua and Pantagruel. 

92 

• • • 

Melanchthon’s Loci. 

93 

• • • 

Calvin’s Institutes. 

95 

• • • 

Jerusalem Delivered. 

97 

• • • 

Faerie Queen. 

100 

17th 

Don Quixote... 

98 

• • • 

Advancement of Learning. 

102 

• • • 

Hamlet. 

105 

• • • 

Paradise Lost. 

113 

• • • 

Hudibras. 

114 

• • • 

Pilgrim’s Progress. 

119 

• • • 

Alexander’s Feast. 

120 

• • • 

The Human Understanding. 

122 

• • • 

Principia. 

124 

] 8th 

Robinson Crusoe. 

127 

• • • 

Gulliver’s Travels. 

129 

• • • 

Gil Bias. 

130 

• • • 

The Spectator. 

131 

• • • 

Essay on Man. 

134 

• • • 

The True Christian Religion. 

135 

• • • 

Poor Richard’s Almanac. 

141 

• « • 

Tom Jones. 

142 

• • • 

Lives of the Poets. 

145 

. . . 

Tristram Shandy. 

149 




















































9 2 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


TABLE OF IMPORTANT WORKS AND MASTERPIECES OF 

LITERATURE.— Concluded. 


Century. 


18th 


19th 


TITLE OF WORK. 


Gray’s Elegy. 

Roderick Random. 

Wealth of Nations. 

The Vicar of Wakefield .... 

Laokoon . 

Life of Johnson. 

Wilhelm Meister. 

Faust. 

Titan. 

Corinne. 

Cosmos. 

Waverly. 

The Sketch Book. 

Childe Harold ....... 

The Last of the Mohicans . . . 

Thanatopsis. 

Lectures on Heroes. 

History of Ferdinand and Isabella 

Positive Philosophy. 

Macaulay’s History of England . 

Les Mis6rables. 

Monte Christo. 

Representative Men. 

The Scarlet Letter.. 

Utilitarianism.. 

Evangeline . 

Snow Bound. 

Origin of Species. 

Idylls of the King.. 

Ten Great Religions.. 

The History of Henry Esmond 

David Copperfield. 

Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 

History of Philosophy. 

Crown of Wild Olive. 

Daniel Deronda. 

First Principles. 


Author’s 

No. 


152 

154 

156 

160 

161 

170 

176 

176 

184 

187 

191 

195 

211 

223 

226 

235 

237 

239 

243 

250 

254 

258 

259 

260 
269 

272 

273 
275 
277 
280 
281 
289 
292 
308 
320 

322 

323 





















































AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


93 


The Table of Departments of Literature shows 
the principal departments of Literature with the great 
names belonging to each, together with their important 
work in that department. It will be seen that a num¬ 
ber of names occur in several different departments, 
this of course is where the author has written im¬ 
portant works in different departments. For example: 
the first name in this table is Aristotle, under the de¬ 
partment Natural Science. The name Aristotle is also 
found under Social Science, Mental Science, Criticism, 
Ethics, and Metaphysics. The name Voltaire is found 
under Social Science, History, Poetry, Drama, Fiction, 
and Criticism. The name of Johnson occurs under 
Biography, Fiction, Criticism, and Essays. The name 
of Goethe is found under Poetry, Drama, Fiction, Criti¬ 
cism, and Ethics. The name of Emerson occurs under 
Social Science, Poetry, Essays, and Ethics. And we 
find the name of Carlyle under Social Science, History, 
Biography, Criticism, Essays, and Ethics. 

The first column of this table shows the century; 
the second gives the name of the author; the third the 
title of the work; and the last the author’s number. 
Under Poetry we have a column giving the kind of 
Poetry, as epic, lyric, etc.; and under Drama, the kind 
of Drama, whether comedy or tragedy. Under The- 
ology those names belonging to the fathers, schoolmen, 
and reformers, respectively, are indicated. 


94 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


In considering the names under the departments 
Metaphysics and Philosophy, reference should be made 
to remarks on those two branches in Chapter III. In 
the sense in which we have used the term, there are 
only three names conspicuous in Philosophy. All 
great thinkers are to a certain extent philosophers; 
but nearly all, who have attempted to found a system, 
have dealt more with the unknown than with the knovjn, 
and have thus made themselves metaphysicians instead 
of philosophers. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


95 


DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE. 


NATURAL SCIENCE. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 

4th 

Aristotle . 

History of Animals. 

32 

3d 

A. D. 

1st 

Archimedes 

On Floating Bodies. 

35 

Pliny . . 

Natural History. 

56 

2d 

Ptolemy . 

Syntaxis. 

67 

16th 

Copernicus 

The Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres 

88 

17th 

Bacon . . 

Novum Organon. 

102 

• • • 

Galileo 

Dialogue. 

106 

• • • 

Kepler . . 

New Astronomy. 

107 

18 th 

Newton . 

Principia. 

124 

• • • 

Franklin . 

(Scientific Papers). 

141 

• • • 

Buffon . . 

Epochs of Nature. 

143 

19th 

Herschel . 

(Astronomical Papers). 

169 

• • • 

Cuvier . . 

Animal Kingdom. 

189 

• • • 

Humbolt . 

Cosmos. 

191 

• • • 

Prichard . 

Natural History of Man. 

216 

• • • 

Faraday . 

(Chemical Papers). 

231 

• • • 

Lyell . . 

Students’ Manual of Geology. 

242 

• • • 

Comte . . 

Positive Philosophy. 

243 

• • • 

Agassiz 

Contributions to the Natural History of 




the United States. 

271 

• • • 

Darwin 

Descent of Man.• . . 

275 

• • • 

Lewes . . 

Physiology of Common Life. 

308 

• • • 

Spencer . 

Principles of Biology. 

323 

• • • 

Tyndall . 

Fragments of Science. 

324 

• • • 

Huxley 

Lay Sermons. 

347 


SOCIAL SCIENCE. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author's 

No. 

B. C. 




4th 

Aristotle . . . 

The Politics. 

32 

A. D. 




16th 

Macchiavelli . . 

Lettere. 

87 

17 th 

Milton .... 

Areopagitica. 

113 

18th 

Locke .... 

Civil Government. 

122 

• • • 

Addison . . . 

The Freeholder. 

131 
























































9<5 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


SOCIAL SCIENCE.— Co?itinued. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. 



136 

18th 

Montesquieu . . 

Spirit of the Laws. 

• • • 

Voltaire .... 

Essay on the Manners of Nations 

138 

• • • 

Franklin . . . 

(Papers). 

141 

• • • 

Hume .... 

Political Discourses. 

147 

• • • 

Rousseau . . . 

Social Contract. 

148 

• • * 

Smith .... 

Wealth of Nations. 

156 

• • • 

Burke .... 

Reflections on the Revolution in 
France . 

162 

19th 

Paine .... 

Common Sense. 

168 

• • • 

Bentham . . . 

Introduction to the Principles of 
Morals and Legislation .... 

173 

• • • 

Hamilton . . . 

The Federalist. 

179 

• • • 

Pellico .... 

Prisons. 

227 

• • • 

Lamartine . . . 

History of the Girondists .... 

230 

• • • 

Carlyle .... 

Past and Present. 

237 

• • • 

Macaulay . . . 

(Essays). 

250 

• • • 

Emerson . . . 

Society and Solitude. 

259 

• • • 

De Tocqueville 

On Democracy in America . . . 

264 

• • • 

Mill. 

Chapters on Socialism. 

269 

• • • 

Ruskin .... 

Unto This Last. 

320 

• • • 

Spencer .... 

Social Statics. 

323 

• • • 

Muller .... 

Lectures on the Science of Lan- 
guage . 

342 

• • • 

Huxley .... 

Critiques and Addresses .... 

347 

• • • 

Lubbock . . . 

Prehistoric Times. 

367 


LAW. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 




6 th 

Solon . . 

Code. 

10 

A. D. 




2d 

Gaius . . 

Institutes. 

64 

15 th 

Fortescue 

On the Praises of British Laws .... 

86 

18th 

Blackstone 

Commentaries. 

155 

19th 

Kent . . 

Commentaries. 

185 

• • • 

Wheaton . 

International Law. 

212 

• • • 

Maine . . 

Ancient Law. 

335 































































AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


97 


HISTORY. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 

5 th 

Herodotus 

(On the Graeco-Persian War) . . . 

22 

• • • 

Thucydides . 

History of the Peloponnesian War . 

23 

4 th 

Xenophon 

Anabasis . 

28 

2d 

Polybius . . 

Universal History. 

39 

1st 

Caesar . . . 

Commentaries of Gallic War . . . 

43 

• • • 

A D 

Sallust . . . 

The Jugurthine War. 

46 

1st 

Livy .... 

Annals . 

51 

• • • 

Josephus . . 

Jewish Antiquities. 

57 

2d 

Tacitus . . 

Annals. 

61 

14th 

Froissart . . 

Chronicles. 

84 

16th 

Macchiavelli 

(Florentine History). 

87 

17 th 

Raleigh . . 

History of the World. 

99 

18th 

Voltaire . . 

Century of Louis XIV. 

138 

• • • 

Hume . . . 

History of England. 

147 

• • • 

Gibbon . . . 

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 

167 

19th 

Schiller . . . 

History of the Thirty Years’ War . . 

182 

• • • 

Hallam . . . 

Europe During the Middle Ages . . 

207 

• • • 

Guizot . . . 

History of France for my Grandchildren 

220 

• • • 

Carlyle . . . 

Lectures on Heroes. 

237 

• • • 

Prescott . . 

History of Ferdinand and Isabella . 

239 

• • • 

Macaulay . . 

History of England. 

250 

• • • 

Bancroft . . 

History of the United States .... 

251 

• • • 

Motley . . . 

The Rise of the Dutch Republic . . 

298 

• • • 

Buckle . . . 

History of Civilization. 

337 


BIOGRAPHY. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 
1st 

Nepos . . 

Lives of Eminent Commanders .... 

47 

A. D. 



2d 

Plutarch . 

Parallel Lives. 

60 

• • • 

Suetonius 

Lives of the Twelve Caesars. 

62 

18th 

Johnson . 

Lives of the Poets. 

145 

• • • 

Boswell 

Life of Johnson. 

170 

19th 

Irving . . 

Life of Washington. 

211 

• • • 

Carlyle 

(In Miscellanies). 

237 

• • • 

Macaulay . 

(In Essays) . 

250 

• • • 

Abbott . . 

Cyrus the Great. 

258 























































9 S 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


MENTAL SCIENCE. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 

4th 

Aristotle . 

Organon . 

32 

A. D. 

17 th 

Bacon . . 

(In Advancement of Learning) . . . 

102 

19th 

Hamilton 

(In Lectures on Metaphysics) .... 

224 

• • • 

Mill . . . 

System of Logic. 

267 

• • • 

Carpenter 

Mental Physiology. 

294 

• • • 

Lewes . . 

The Study of Psychology. 

308 

• • • 

Spencer . 

Principles of Psychology. 

323 


POETRY. 


Century. 

NAME. 


TITLE OF WORK. 

KIND 

OF POETRY. 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 

15th 

Pentaour . 

• 

(The Egyptian Iliad) 

Epic . . 

3 

10 th 

Solomon . 

• 

Proverbs . 

Didactic . 

6 

• • • 

Homer . . 

• 

Iliad. 

Epic . . 

7 

• • • 

Hesiod . . 

• 

Works and Days .... 

Didactic . 

8 

3d 

Valmiki 

• 

Ramayana. 

Epic . . 

37 

2d 

Vyasa . . 

• 

Mahabharata. 

Epic . . 

41 

1st 

Virgil . . 

• 

HSneid. 

Epic . . 

48 

• • • 

A. D. 
1st 

Horace . . 

• 

Ode to Msecenas .... 

Lyric . . 

50 

Kalidasa . 

• 

The Seasons ..... 

Lvric . . 

58 

2d 

Juvenal . . 

• 

Tenth Satire. 

Satiric . . 

59 

7 th 

Mohammed 

• 

Koran. 

Didactic . 

75 

11th 

Firdusi . . 

• 

Shah-Namah . 

Epic . . 

76 

• • • 

Hariri . . 

• 

The Assemblies .... 

Narrative . 

77 

14th 

Dante . . 

• 

Divine Comedy .... 

Epic . . 

79 

V • • 

Petrarch . 

• 

To Laura. 

Lyric . . 

81 

• • • 

Chaucer 

• 

Canterbury Tales . . . 

Narrative . 

85 

16th 

Ariosto . . 

• 

Orlando Furioso .... 

Epic . . 

89 

• • • 

Tasso . . 

• 

Jerusalem Delivered . . 

Epic . . 

97 

• • • 

Spenser 

• 

Faerie Queen . 

Didactic . 

100 

17th 

Shakespeare 

• 

Sonnetts . 

Lyric . . 

105 

• • • 

Milton . . 

• 

Paradise Lost . 

Epic . . 

113 

• • • 

Dryden 

• 

Alexander’s Feast . . . 

Lyric . . 

120 

18th 

Pope . . . 

. 

Essay on Man. 

Didactic . 

134 

• • • 

Voltaire 

• 

Henriade. 

Epic . . 

138 

• • • 

Herder . . 

• 

Cid. 

Epic . . 

172 
























































AND HUMAN CONDUCT 


99 


PO ETR Y.— Co n tin ued. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

KIND 

OF POETRY. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. * 

18th 

Goethe . . . 

Herman and Dorothea . 

Epic . . 

176 

• • • 

Burns . . . 

Tam O’Shanter .... 

Lyric . . 

181 

19th 

Schiller . . . 

The Diver. 

Lyric . . 

182 

• • • 

Wordsworth . 

Intimations of Immortality 

Lyric . . 

193 

• • • 

Byron . . . 

Childe Harold. 

Narrative . 

223 

• • • 

Lamartine 

Meditations. 

Lyric . . 

230 

• • • 

Bryant . . . 

Thanatopsis. 

Lyric . . 

235 

• • • 

Emerson . . 

May Day. 

Lyric . . 

259 

• • • 

Longfellow . 

Evangeline. 

Narrative . 

272 

• • • 

Whittier . . 

Snow Bound . 

Narrative . 

273 

• • • 

Tennyson . . 

Idylls of the King . . . 

Epic . . 

277 


DRAMA. 





KIND OF 

Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

DRAMA. 

No. 

B. C. 

6 th 

H£schylus . . 

Prometheus . 

Tragedy . 

17 

5 th 

Sophocles . . 

CEdipus. 

Tragedy . 

20 

• • • 

Euripides . . 

The Medea . 

Tragedy . 

21 

4th 

Aristophanes 

The Clouds . 

Comedy . 

27 

3d 

Plautus . . . 

The Captives. 

Comedy . 

38 

2d 

A. D. 
1st 

Terence . . 

The Self Tormentor . . 

Comedy . 

40 

Kalidasa . . 

Sakoontala. 


58 

16th 

Vega .... 

The Father Outwitted 

Comedy . 

103 

• • • 

Marlowe . . 

Doctor Faustus .... 

Tragedy . 

104 

17th 

Shakespeare . 

Hamlet . 

Tragedy . 

105 

• • • 

Jonson . . . 

Volpone . 

Comedy . 

108 

• • • 

Corneille . . 

Cinna . 

Tragedy . 

112 

• • • 

Moliere . . 

Tartufe . 

Comedy . 

116 

• • • 

Racine . . . 

Athalie . 

Tragedy . 

123 

18th 

Voltaire . . 

Zaire. 

Tragedy . 

138 

• • • 

Goldoni . . 

A Curious Accident . . 

Comedy . 

144 

19th 

Goethe . . . 

Faust. 

Tragedy . 

176 

• • • 

Schiller . . . 

William Tell. 

Tragedy . 

182 

• • • 

Manzoni . . 

Adelchi. 

Tragedy . 

215 

• • • 

Pellico . . . 

Francesca da Rimini . . 

Tragedy . 

227 


. L.ofC. 




























































IOO 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


ORATORY. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 

5 th 

Lysias . . . 

(Orations). 

26 

4 th 

^Eschines . . 

Against Ctesiphon. 

30 

• • • 

Demosthenes 

On the Crown. 

31 

1st 

Cicero . . . 

Philippics. 

42 

A. D. 

17th 

Bossuet . . . 

Discourse on History. 

117 

18th 

Burke . . . 

On the East India Bill. 

161 

• • • 

Henry . . . 

Against the Stamp Act. 

165 

• • • 

Mirabeau . . 

(Speeches). 

173 

19th 

Webster . . 

Reply to Hayne. 

210 

• • • 

Phillips . . . 

Speeches . 

285 


FICTION. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 




6 th 

H^sop . . . 

Fables . 

12 

A. D. 



2d 

Lucian . . . 

Dialogues of the Gods. 

63 

14th 

Boccaccio 

Decamerone. 

82 

16th 

More . . . 

Utopia. 

90 

• • • 

Rabelais . . 

Gargantua and Pantagruel. 

92 

• • • 

Cervantes . . 

Don Quixote. 

98 

17 th 

Bunyan . . . 

Pilgrim’s Progress. 

119 

18th 

F^nelon . . 

Adventures of T£l£maque. 

126 

• • • 

Defoe . . . 

Robinson Crusoe. 

127 

• • • 

Swift .... 

Gulliver’s Travels. 

129 

• • • 

LeSage . . . 

Gil Bias. 

130 

• • • 

Voltaire . . 

Romances. 

138 

• • • 

Fielding . . 

Tom Jones... 

142 

• • • 

Johnson . . 

Rasselas. 

145 

• • • 

Sterne . . . 

Tristram Shandy. 

149 

• • • 

Smollett . . 

Roderick Random. 

152 

• • • 

Goldsmith 

Vicar of Wakefield. 

160 

19th 

Goethe . . . 

Wilhelm Meister. 

176 

• • • 

Richter . . 

Titan. 

184 

• • • 

Stael .... 

Corinne. 

187 

• * • 

Chateaubriand 

A tala. 

190 

• • • 

Scott .... 

Waverly. 

195 
































































AND HUMAN CONDUCT 


IOI 


FICTION.— Continued. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’* 

No. 

A. D. 

19th 

Manzoni . . 

I Promessi Sposi. 

215 

• • • 

Cooper . . . 

The Last of the Mohicans. 

226 

• • • 

Hugo . . . 

Les Mis£rables. 

254 

• • • 

Dumas . . . 

Monte Christo. 

257 

• • • 

Hawthorne . 

The Scarlet Letter. 

260 

« • • 

Thackeray 

Henry Esmond. 

281 

• • • 

Dickens . . 

David Copperfield. 

289 

• • • 

Stowe . . . 

Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 

292 

• • • 

Trollope . . 

The Claverings. 

302 

• • • 

Turgenief . . 

Smoke . 

311 

• • • 

Cross . . . 

Daniel Deronda. 

322 

• • • 

(George Eliot) 

Tolstoi . . . 

Anna Karenina. 

357 


CRITICISM. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 

4 th 

Aristotle . 

(In the Metaphysics). 

32 

1st 

Horace 

The Art of Poetry. 

50 

A. D. 



17th 

Dryden 

Essay on Dramatic Poesy. 

120 

18th 

Addison . 

The Spectator .. 

131 

• • • 

Pope . . 

Essay on Criticism. 

134 

• • • 

Voltaire . 

Miscellanies. 

138 

• • • 

Johnson . 

The Rambler. 

145 

• • • 

Lessing 

Laokoon . 

161 

19th 

Goethe 

Conversations. 

176 

• • • 

Lamb . . 

Essays. 

202 

• • • 

Carlyle . . 

Critical and Miscellaneous Essays . . . 

237 

• • • 

Macaulay . 

Essays. 

250 

f • • 

Whipple . 

Essays and Reviews. 

318 

• • • 

Lowell . . 

My Study Windows. 

319 

• • • 

Ruskin . . 

Modern Painters. 

320 

• • • 

Taine . . 

History of English Literature. 

355 



























































102 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


ESSAYS. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. 

16th 

Montaigne 

Essais. 

96 

17th 

Bacon . . 

Essays. 

102 

18th 

Addison . 

The Spectator. 

131 

• • • 

Johnson . 

The Rambler. 

145 

19th 

Lamb . . 

Essays of Elia. 

202 

• • • 

Irving . . 

Sketch Book. 

211 

• • • 

De Quincy 

Confessions of an Opium Eater .... 

213 

• • • 

Carlyle 

Miscellanies. 

237 

• • 

Macaulay . 

Essays. 

250 

• • • 

Emerson . 

Representative Men. 

259 

• • • 

Thoreau . 

Walden. 

307 

• • • 

Whipple . 

Essays and Reviews. 

318 

• • • 

Lowell . . 

Among My Books. 

319 

• • • 

Higginson 

Outdoor Papers. 

339 

• • • 

Curtis . . 

The Potiphar Papers. 

344 


TRAVELS. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

A. D. 

14th 

Mandeville 

Travellers’ Tales. 

80 

19th 

Wilkes . . 

(Explorations in Southern and Pacific 




Oceans). 

252 

• • • 

Stephens . 

Incidents of Travel in Central America 

263 

• • • 

War burton 

The Crescent and the Cross. 

279 

• • • 

Livingstone 

Last Journals. 

293 

• • • 

Dana . . 

Two Years Before the Mast. 

303 

• • • 

Kane . . 

Polar Expedition. 

321 

• • • 

Hall . . . 

Arctic Researches. 

327 

• • • 

Squier . . 

Peru . 

329 

• • • 

Baker . . 

(In the Nile Region of Africa) .... 

331 

• • • 

Taylor . . 

Northern Travel. 

345 

• • • 

Stanley 

How I Found Livingstone. 

384 























































AND HUMAN CONDUCT 


IO3 


HUMOR. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. 

18th 

Swift .... 

Tale of a Tub. 

129 

• • • 

Montesquieu 

Lettres Persanes. 

136 

19th 

Smith . . . 

Wit and Wisdom. 

196 

• • • 

Jerrold . . . 

The Caudle Lectures. 

256 

• • • 

Shaw .... 

Allminax. 

312 

• • • 

(Josh Billings) 

Browne . . . 

Artemus Ward — His Book .... 

363 

• • • 

Clemens . . 

The Innocents Abroad. 

373 


(Mark Twain) 




ETHICS. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 

20th 

Ptah-hotep 

(In Prisse Papyrus). 

1 

13th 

Manu . . 

Code. 

5 

6 th 

Lao Tsze . 

The Road to Virtue. 

14 

• • • 

Confucius 

Analects. 

15 

5 th 

Socrates . 

(In Xenophon’s Memorabilia) .... 

24 

4th 

Plato . . 

Republic. 

29 

• • • 

Aristotle . 

The Ethics. 

32 

• • • 

Mencius . 

Fourth Shoo. 

33 

A. D. 




1st 

Seneca . . 

On Anger. 

54 

2d 

Aurelius . 

Meditations. 

65 

6 th 

Boethius . 

Consolation of Philosophy. 

73 

17th 

Hobbes . 

Leviathan. 

109 

• • • 

Pascal . . 

Provincial Letters. 

117 

19th 

Goethe 

(In Autobiography). 

176 

• • • 

Carlyle 

Characteristics . . . 

237 

• • • 

Emerson . 

The Conduct of Life. 

259 

• • • 

Mill . . . 

Utilitarianism. 

269 

• • • 

Ruskin 

Crown of Wild Olive. 

320 

• • • 

Spencer . 

The Data of Ethics. 

323 



















































104 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


METAPHYSICS. 





Author’s 

Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

No. 

B. C. 

6 th 

Thales . . 

(See the Metaphysics of Aristotle) . . 

9 

4th 

Plato . . 

Phsedo . 

29 

• • • 

A Tl 

Aristotle . 

The Metaphysics . 

32 

A. JJ. 

17th 

Descartes 

Meditations . 

110 

• • • 

Locke . . 

The Pluman Understanding. 

122 

18th 

Leibnitz . 

Monadology. 

125 

• • • 

Hume . . 

Inquiry Concerning the Human Under- 




standing. 

147 

• • • 

Kant . . 

Critique of Pure Reason . 

158 

19th 

Fichte . . 

Science of Knowledge . 

183 

• • • 

Hegel . . 

Phenomenology . 

192 

• • • 

Schelling . 

Transcendental Idealism . 

203 

• • • 

Hamilton 

Philosophy of the Unconditioned . . . 

224 

• • • 

Cousin . . 

Modern Philosophy . 

233 

• • • 

McCosh . 

Intuitions of the Mind . 

287 

• • • 

Lewes . . 

History of Philosophy . 

308 

• • • 

Cook . . 

Conscience. 

378 


RELIGION. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

B. C. 




15th 

Moses . . 

Pentateuch. 

2 

• • • 

Zoroaster . 

(In the Avesta). 

4 

6 th 

Buddha . 

Discourses. 

16 

A. D. 




1st 

Paul . . . 

Romans. 

55 

7 th 

Mohammed 

Koran. 

75 


THEOLOGY. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. 

3d 

Tertullian . . . 

Apologeticus. 

68 

• • • 

(Church Father) 

Origen .... 

On Martyrdom. 

69 


(Church Father) 






























































AND HUMAN CONDUCT 


I°5 


THEOLOGY.— Continued. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author's 

No. 

A. D. 

4th 

Athanasius . . 

On the Incarnation. 

70 


(Church Father) 



• • • 

Chrysostom . . 

Commentaries. 

71 

5 th 

(Church Father) 



Augustine . . . 

On the City of God. 

72 

6 th 

(Church Father) 


Gregory . . . 

Homilies. 

74 

13th 

(Church Father) 



Aquinas . . . 

Sum of Theology. 

78 

14th 

(Schoolman) 


Wiclif .... 

Treatises. 

83 

16th 

(Reformer) 



Luther .... 

Address to the Christian Nobles of 



(Reformer) 

Germany . . 

91 

• • • 

Knox. 

Faithful Admonition. 

94 


(Reformer) 



• • • 

Calvin . . . 

Institutes. 

95 

17 th 

(Reformer) 



Williams . . . 

The Bloody Tenent. 

111 

• • • 

Taylor .... 

Ductor Dubitantium. 

115 

18th 

Mather .... 

Memorable Providences Relating to 




Witchcraft. 

128 

• • • 

Sweedenborg 

The True Christian Religion . . 

135 

• • • 

Edwards . . . 

Freedom of Will. 

139 

• • • 

Wesley .... 

Commentaries. 

140 

19th 

Schleiermacher . 

The Christian Faith. 

188 

• • • 

Channing . . . 

Evidences of Christianity .... 

209 

• • • 

Whately . . . 

The Kingdom of Christ Delineated 

219 

• • • 

Neander . . . 

History of the Christian Religion 




and Church. 

225 

• • • 

Clarke .... 

Ten Great Religions. 

289 

• • • 

Beecher . . . 

Sermons. 

297 

• • • 

Stanley .... 

Sermons and Essays. 

301 


PHILOSOPHY. 


Century. 

NAME. 

TITLE OF WORK. 

Author’s 

No. 

A. D. 

17th 

Bacon . . 

Advancement of Learning. 

102 

19th 

Comte . . 

Positive Philosophy. 

243 

• • • 

Spencer . 

Synthetic Philosophy. 

323 























































io 6 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


The Literature Chart shows the divisions of Litera¬ 
ture in general, and the important 'particular literatures 
of the world (that is the literatures of particular lan¬ 
guages) ; also the great names of Literature with the 
century when each flourished, and what literatures and 
names are contemporaneous. The divisions of Litera¬ 
ture as shown by the chart are Oriental, Classical, 
Mediaeval, and Modern. The particular literatures *of 
the division Oriental are Egyptian, Persian, Hebrew, 
Chinese, and Hindoo; of the division Classical are 
Greek and Latin; of the division Mediaeval are Arabian, 
Italian, English, and French; and of the division Mod¬ 
ern are Italian, English, American, French, German? 
Spanish, Swedish, and Russian. 

The names Homer, Dante, and Shakespeare are 
shown in the heavier faced type, as being the most con¬ 
spicuous names in Literature. The name Zoroaster 
and those other names which appear in capitals are 
shown as being in a degree less conspicuous. The 
name Manu and the others which appear in italics are 
shown as still less conspicuous. The rest of the names 
appear in the common type, but all the names on the 
chart are great names in Literature. Of course, the 
degree in which the names on the chart appear con¬ 
spicuous in Literature, depends upon the point of view, 
and in many instances would be matter for difference 
of opinion. 




AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


107 

The numbers on the left hand margin of the chart 
indicate the century in which the great men who bore 
the names flourished; and the number after each name 
is the author’s number, by which the name can be found 
in the Table of Authors. 

The chart is so arranged that it shows what litera¬ 
tures and what great names are contemporaneous. For 
example: it will be seen that the later Hebrew Litera¬ 
ture, the Chinese Literature and the Hindoo Literature 
of the division Oriental are contemporary with the early 
Greek Literature of the division Classical. The Latin 
Literature of the division Classical is contemporary with 
the later Greek of the same division, and with the later 
Hindoo of the division Oriental. The Arabian Litera¬ 
ture of the division Mediaeval is without contemporary. 
Among the great names it will be seen that Zoroaster 
and Moses were contemporaries; that Homer and 
Solomon were contemporaries; that ZEschylus, Ezra, 
Confucius, and Buddha were contemporaries; that 
Aristotle and Mencius were contemporaries; and that 
Johnson, Franklin, and Rousseau were contemporaries* 


1 


















LITERATURE CHART 


ORIENTAL LITERATURE. 


Century. 

EGYPTIAN. 

PERSIAN. 

HEBREW. 

CHINESE. 

15. C. 
20th 

Ptah-hotep . . . . 

1 







15 th 

Pentaour .... 

3 

ZOROASTER . . 


. . 4 

MOSES . . . . 

. 2 



13th 

•* 









CLASSICAL 

LITERATURE. 








. GREEK.. 

LATIN. 






10 th 

Homer. 

7 




Solomon . . . . 




6 th 

yEsop. 

12 




Jeremiah . . . 

. 11 

Lao Tsze . . . 

. 14 

• • • 

/Eschylus .... 

17 




Ezra. 

. 19 

CONFUCIUS . 

. 15 

5 th 

Sophocles .... 

20 








... 

Herodotus .... 

22 







• . • 

THUCYDIDES . . 

23 








Socrates . 

24 







. . . 

Hippocrates . . . 

25 







4th 

Aristophanes . . . 

27 







. . . 

Xenophon . . . . 

28 







• . • 

Pla to . 

29 








Demosthenes . . . 

31 





Mencius .... 

. 33 

• • 

| ARISTOTLE . . . 

32 





. 

| Euclid . 

34 








Archimedes . . . 

35 

Plautus . 

38 





:a 

Polybius. 

39 

Terence. 

40 



f 


1st 



CICERO . . . . 

42 





. 



Ccesar . 

43 





. 

Dionysius . . . . 

49 

VIRGIL. 

48 





A. D. 








1st 

Paul. 

55 

Seneca . 

54 





• . . 

Josephus . 

57 

Pliny. 

56 





2d 

Plutarch . 

60 

Tacitus. 






• . . 

Ptolemy. 

67 

Aurelius. 

65 





3d 

Origen. 

69 

Tertu Ilian . . . . 

68 





4th 

Chrysostom . . . 

71 







5th 



Augustine . . . . 

72 





6th 



Boethius. 

73 






HINDOO. 


Manu 


BUDDHA 


. . 16 


Valmiki 
Vyasa . 


37 

41 


Kalidasa 


58 


MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE. 



ARABIAN. 

ITALIAN. 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

7 th 

MOHAMMED . 

. 75 







11th 

Firdusi .... 

. 76 







• • 

Hariri. 

. 77 







13th 



Aquinas .... 

. 78 





14th 



Dante .... 

. 79 

Mandeville . . . 

. 80 



• 



Petrarch .... 

. 81 

Wiclif. 

. 83 



• . . 



Boccaccio . . . 

. 82 

Chaucer .... 

. 85 



15th 





Fortescue . . . 

. 86 

Froissart .... 

84 


MODERN LITERATURE. 



ITALIAN. 

ENGLISH. 


AMERICAN. 




16th 

Macchiavelli . 

. 87 

More .... 

. 90 



ARIOSTO . . 

. 89 

Knox .... 

. 94 



Tasso .... 

. 97 

Spenser . . . 

100 


17th 



BACON . . . 

102 



Galileo . . . . 

106 

Shakespeare . 

105 





MILTON . . 

113 

Williams . . .111 




Dryden . . . 

120 


18th 



Locke . . . . 

122 





Npwlnn 

124 

Mather . . . 128 


FRENCH. 

GERMAN. 

SPANISH. 

Rabelais . . 

. 92 

Copernicus 

. 88 



Calvin . . . 

. 95 

Luther . . . 

. 91 



Montaigne . . 

. 96 









Cervantes . . 

. 98 



Kepler . . . 

107 

Vega . . . . 

103 

Descartes . . 

. 110 





Mo Here . . 

. 116 

Spinoza . . 

121 

• 


Bossuet . . 

. 118 





F£nelon . . 

. 126 

Leibnitz . . 

125 

SWEDISH. 
















































































































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..4 v* 

C r* 



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• 

















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>r 
















































































HISTORY. 





CHAPTER VI. 


HISTORY. 

“The history of the world is the biography of great men.” 

— Thomas Carlyle. 

“All history resolves itself very easily into the biography of a few stout and 
earnest persons.” —Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

T TISTORY unfolds to us the past of mankind; by it 
1 1 we trace the growth of institutions; and with its 
help we see the development from the simple conditions 
of the remote past, to the complex relations of the 
present time. In order to understand existing laws, 
customs, usages, and beliefs, we must have knowledge 
of their beginnings and their development. History 
furnishes such knowledge. In short, History furnishes 
that knowledge of the past, without which we can not 
understand the present. 

I propose an outline of general history in the 
biography of sixteen of its great men, beginning with 
Solomon, iooo years b. c. Solomon was king of 
Israel, nearly forty years; and his reign marks the 
zenith of the power and glory of the Israelites. At 
this time the nation had been in existence since the 
Exodus, about 1500 b. c., that is to say, nearly five 
hundred years. We have a sort of history of the 
Israelites, beginning with Abraham, about 2000 b. c.; 
but from Abraham to the Exodus it is a family history, 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


II 4 

and not a history of a nation. Israel occupies the first 
prominent place in the history of the world. Both 
Assyria and Egypt are older nations, said to have been 
founded soon after the “dispersion at Babel,” about 
2200 b. c., or 1800 a. M. Assyria takes a prominent 
place in general history later. Egypt does not take such 
a place at all; and we have no great man in Egyptian 
history, whose biography is a landmark to be compared 
with the Great Pyramid of that same country. Solomon 
married the daughter of the contemporary king of Egypt, 
and six hundred and ninety-nine others. His wisdom 
is proverbial, and well attested by his writings. His 
great work was the building of the temple, which was 
sanctuary, university, fortress, and forum combined. 
The noted contemporaries of Solomon were Hiram, 
king of Tyre, who assisted him in building the temple, 
and probably the Greek poet Homer. 

Solomon consolidated the empire which his father, 
David, had acquired; built cities, fortifications, and 
many public works; changed a nation of shepherds 
into a great commercial people; and made many small 
kingdoms tributary to his own. He was king, philoso¬ 
pher, priest, and poet; but withal an imperfect man. 
It is important to notice that his early life was adorned 
with more virtues than his later years, in which he 
showed great disregard for human rights. Like his 
father before him he was a polygamist; he maintained 
an enormous harem, and burdened his people with 
taxation to sustain his luxurious and licentious court. 
The sequence was the revolution, which followed after 
his death and the accession of his son, resulting in the 
revolt of the ten tribes, known in history as “the sepa¬ 
ration,” 975 b. C, 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


US 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 

The second great man in the outline is Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar, 600 b. c. At this time he was king of Babylon 
or the Assyrian Empire, as it is also known in history. 

Prior to this time the ten tribes of Israel had been 
carried away captive, and the kingdom of Israel brought 
to an end. The kingdom of Judah was in existence, 
and Jehoiakim was its king at Jerusalem. The little 
kingdoms, Lydia, Tyre, and Macedonia were existing. 
Cyaxares was king of Media, a people of considerable 
importance. Persia was a dependency of Media. Egypt, 
under Necho, was enjoying a period of prosperity. 
Greece was in its Heroic age, and Rome in its Tradi¬ 
tional. It was the Feudal period of Chinese history, 
and the Hindoos were living under the Code of Manu. 

Nebuchadnezzar’s kingdom was a new one, formed 
by the annexation of Nineveh to Babylon. Twenty- 
five years before this time, his father formed an alliance 
with the king of Media, which had resulted in the fall 
of Nineveh. Nineveh (also known as Assyria) and 
Babylon are both said to have been founded soon after 
the “dispersion at Babel”; and it appears that they 
were sometimes united under one government and 
sometimes separate governments, until the time of the 
fall of Nineveh (625 b. c.) when they were united 
finally. 

About 586 b. c., Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusa¬ 
lem, burned Solomon’s great temple, and carried the 
Jews captive to Babylon, thus ending the existence of 
the kingdom of Judah. Later he reduced Tyre, subju¬ 
gated Egypt, and became the most powerful monarch 


116 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


of his time. To him, his kingdom owes its place in 
history. He built great public works, the most im¬ 
portant of which were the Hanging Gardens at Babylon, 
called by the Greeks one of the seven wonders of the 
world. He encouraged commerce, and made his king¬ 
dom famous for its manufactures. His monarchy was 
absolute; and like most ancient rulers, he was cruel and 
arbitrary. His noted contemporaries were Daniel, 
yEsop, Solon, and Thales; the two latter are two of 
the seven wise men of Greece. Nebuchadnezzar’s suc¬ 
cessors maintained the empire until its overthrow by 
our third great man, 


CYRUS THE GREAT. 

Prior to 550 b. c., Cyrus had met his maternal 
grandfather, king of the Medes, in battle, defeated him 
and established himself on the throne of the united 
kingdom of Media and Persia. He had also conquered 
Croesus king of Lydia. In 538 b. c., he completed the 
conquest of Babylon; but a few years later, in an 
expedition against a Scythian tribe, he lost his life. It 
is well to notice that after his capture of Babylon, Cyrus 
decreed that the captive Jews should return to Jerusa¬ 
lem and rebuild their temple. It is said that he re¬ 
garded the Jews with special favor, because, like him¬ 
self and his countrymen the Persians, they believed in 
one God. The religion of Cyrus was that taught by 
the great Persian prophet and law-giver, Zoroaster, who 
was probably a contemporary of Moses. It appears 
that both Cyrus and the Jewish prophets believed that 
Ormazd of the Persians, and Jehovah of the Jews was 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


1 17 

one and the same God. The great contemporaries of 
Cyrus were the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, the 
Chinese sage Confucius, and Buddha the prophet of 
India. The great empire, which Cyrus’ genius builded 
up, lasted for more than two hundred years. In com¬ 
mon with other great conquerors, Cyrus was selfish and 
cruel; but he had noble qualities, and practiced the 
cardinal virtue, temperance. 


PERICLES. 

We next come to Pericles, 450 b. c. The period 
of the supremacy of Athens is the period of the glory 
of Greece; and during that supremacy, Pericles was 
not only the ruler but the soul of Athens. The Athen¬ 
ian Empire was, during the time of its glory, the fore¬ 
most government in the world. 

All the great productions of Greek art and archi¬ 
tecture were during the Periclean age. It was the time 
of Phidias, Socrates, Sophocles, and Herodotus. Not 
only arts but also letters flourished, for it was the Golden 
Age of Grecian literature. The great foreign con¬ 
temporaries of Pericles were Xerxes the emperor of 
the Medes and Persians, and Cincinnatus the Roman 
dictator. Pericles preferred to gain glory in the arts of 
peace, instead of war. Better had it been for Athens 
had this continued her policy after his death. Pericles 
was a man of great virtue and integrity; and in his 
death, Greece lost her best as well as greatest public 


man. 


n8 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

We now come down the stream of time one hun¬ 
dred years, to Alexander the Great. In 350 b. c., 
Alexander was a little boy only six years of age; but 
he was reading Homer’s tales of the Trojan heroes. 
At the age of fifteen, he was a pupil of the Greek 
scholar Aristotle; and at the age of twenty, he suc¬ 
ceeded to the throne of his father in the little kingdom 
of Macedonia. In 331 b. c., we find that he had, by 
the most brilliant series of conquests in the history of 
the world, subjugated the Grecian States, Egypt, and 
the Medo-Persian Empire, and made himself monarch 
of the eastern world; but in 323 b. c., he died in the 
thirty-third year of his age, and his vast empire was 
divided among his generals. 

After the completion of his conquests, Alexander 
changed in character and practiced all the vices con¬ 
trasting with the virtues of his youth. It will be re¬ 
membered that something similar was noticed in the 
career of Solomon. The conquests of Alexander bore 
fruit in the intercourse and interchange which followed 
between the East and the West. The prominent con¬ 
temporaries of Alexander were Darius III., Demos¬ 
thenes, and Aristotle. The poet, Pope, sums up the 
career and character of this great man in a single line: 
“The youth who all things but himself subdued.” 


JULIUS CvESAR. 

The sixth great character in our outline is Caesar. 
The point of time, 50 b. c. Rome, situated in the then 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


II 9 

western world, had escaped the notice of the great con¬ 
querors Cyrus and Alexander; and before the East was 
aware had become powerful. At the time of which we 
write, Rome had subjugated Carthage which Alexander 
did not reach, and all the fragments of Alexander’s 
empire except Egypt. Caesar had carried conquest into 
the camps of the western barbarians; he had subjugated 
Gaul, invaded Germany and Britain, and was about 
to cross the Rubicon and begin the civil war with 
Pompey which resulted in his becoming master of 
Rome. In 45 b. c., Caesar was acknowledged emperor 
with absolute power. In his short career which fol¬ 
lowed, he undertook to promote the welfare of the 
people; but did not live long enough to execute many 
of his plans. His regulation of the calendar is to-day 
a standing monument to his memory. In 30 b. c., 
Caesar’s successor subdued Egypt; and for more than 
four centuries the Roman Empire, which Caesar’s genuis 
organized, was the empire of the world. What a great 
factor was this Roman Empire in the civilization of the 
world, transforming as it did the character of the bar¬ 
barous peoples of Europe! 

Contemporary with Caesar were the great men in 
Latin literature — Cicero, Virgil, and Horace; also 
Cleopatra of ‘Egypt. All great men gain ascendency 
over the minds of their fellowmen; but the habits of 
men have much to do with their being controlled. The 
subjects of Cyrus and Alexander were accustomed to 
being absolutely governed. Not so with the subjects 
of Caesar, for, prior to his becoming master of Rome, it 
had been a republic. Concerning great men who have 
made “nations unaccustomed to control” submit to 


120 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


their wills, Macaulay says: “Three men stand pre¬ 
eminent— Caesar, Cromwell, and Bonaparte; the highest 
place in this remarkable triumvirate belongs undoubtedly 
to Caesar. He united the talents of Bonaparte to those 
of Cromwell, and he possessed also what neither Crom¬ 
well nor Bonaparte possessed — learning, taste, wit, 
eloquence, the sentiments and manners of an accom¬ 
plished gentleman.” Pope has a line of him in contrast 
with his line concerning Alexander: “ Caesar, the world’s 
great master and his own.” Shakespeare says of him: 
“The foremost man of all the world.” 


MOHAMMED. 

Our seventh great man is Mohammed. In 600 
A. d., in Arabia, which prior to this time has no place 
in history, its people being in the tribal state, Mohammed, 
a camel-driver, had given up his business and was de¬ 
voting his time to religious meditations. It was in the 
so-called “dark ages” of the world. Nearly two hun¬ 
dred years before, Rome had fallen before the western 
barbarians. At this time the Christian Church was 
divided by controversy, and rendered weak by luxury. 
The Jews had in a measure given up religion for traffic; 
the religion of Zoroaster had become corrupted, and 
the former monotheism of the Arabs was badly mixed 
with the worship of demons and stars. Mohammed 
had gained some knowledge of these things, in his 
travels for purposes of trade; and he resolved to found 
upon the ruins of all these creeds a worship of one 
God. In 609, he began to preach; later he began to 
fight; and in 630, he had control of all Arabia. Within 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


121 


one hundred years, under the leadership of Mohammed 
and his successors, the Saracen Empire came to embrace 
Persia, Syria, Egypt, Northern Africa, and Spain. 

Mohammed is sometimes called the “false prophet”; 
undoubtedly his creed, like many others, is a mixture 
of much error with a little truth; but the man was 
truer than his creed. Whatever may be said of Mo¬ 
hammed, for more than twelve hundred years, millions 
of mankind have constantly believed in him; and his 
religion is to-day the faith of one-sixth of the population 
of the whole world. Contemporary with Mohammed 
were Ethelbert of Kent, Augustine the Monk, and Pope 
Gregory I. 


CHARLEMAGNE. 

Our eighth great personage is Charlemagne. In 
the year 800, he was presented with the crown of the 
Western empire of Rome. He had then been twenty- 
eight years king of the Franks, a kingdom built up on 
the ruins of a part of the Western empire of Rome. 
His father had driven back the Saracens, and made the 
Frankish kingdom important. Charlemagne made his 
empire embrace nearly all Europe, north and west of 
the Adriatic Sea. He was the acknowledged head of 
Christendom; and his fame, as a patron of arts and 
letters, spread over the whole world. The French 
nation of to-day was built upon the last remnant of his 
empire, which was divided soon after his death. Charle¬ 
magne did much for the civilization of Europe; and 
was a great and good man. 

His contemporaries were: Egbert, first king of all 


122 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


England, who spent his youth at Charlemagne’s court; 
and Haroun al Raschid, Mohammed’s greatest successor 
as ruler of the Saracen Empire. 


ALFRED THE GREAT. 

Our ninth great man is Alfred the Great. In the 
year 900, he had nearly completed his career. He is 
entitled to this place in history because he was the 
father of his country, and because he laid the founda¬ 
tion of English literature. The English language of 
to-day, representing as it does all that is best in the 
civilization of the nineteenth century, owes, we know 
not how much, to Alfred the Great. He has been 
called “the wisest and greatest of all the kings of Eng¬ 
land.” Freeman says of him: “He was a saint with¬ 
out superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a con¬ 
queror whose hands were never stained with cruelty, 
a prince never cast down by adversity, never lifted up 
to insolence in the day of triumph.” 

It is worthy of notice that he had no contemporaries 
whose names are conspicuous in history. 


WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

We next come to William the Conqueror, 1050 a. d. 
At this time he was duke of Normandy, which had been 
established a little more than a century by his ancestors 
the Northmen. In 1066, he became king of England 
by conquest. Our sympathies are not with William in 
his conquest; but we must admit, that the event was of 
untold importance resulting in good to the world. It 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


I23 


brought England into intercourse with the Continent, 
gave her a strong government, and moulded and in¬ 
fluenced her in the direction in which she has been a 
power in the world. 

Hazewell says, “ There is not a great event in 
English or American annals which is not directly 
traceable to what was done in the year 1066 by that 
buccaneering band which William the Bastard led 
from Normandy to England to enforce a claim that had 
neither a legal nor a moral foundation, and which never 
could have been established had Harold’s conduct been 
equal to his valor, and had fortune favored the just 
cause.” Smith says of the character of William: “To 
conquer a kingdom, and to establish in it a foreign 
dynasty, amidst the resentment of the natives and the 
jealousies of his own subjects, was a task requiring 
great military ability, capacity for government, and 
ascendency over the minds of men. To such qualities 
William united a determined will and an unscrupulous 
conscience.” The Arabian author Hariri was a con¬ 
temporary of William. 


INNOCENT III. 

Our eleventh great man is Innocent III., Pope of 
Rome, 1200 a. d. A little after the death of Charle¬ 
magne, the then Pope at Rome, obtained control over 
the central part of Italy; and he and his successors 
ruled over it, with occasional interruptions, until the 
year 1870. The territory is known as the Papal States 
with Rome as capital; and the authority over the terri¬ 
tory, as “the temporal power of the pope.” This “tern- 


124 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


poral power of the pope” reached its culmination with 
Innocent III. He assumed power not only over the 
Papal States, but over the governments of the whole 
world; and during his career of seventeen years as 
pope, he was the most powerful man in Christendom. 
Twice, he dictated the election of the German emperor; 
he excommunicated the king of France, and cut off the 
whole kingdom from the privileges of the Church and 
did the same thing with Spain and Portugal; he com¬ 
pelled King John of England to give up to him certain 
prerogatives, and made Bavaria, Sicily, and Denmark 
tributary to his temporal kingdom. His success was 
due in part to the weakness of the contemporary rulers. 

Contemporary with him were: Richard I. of Eng¬ 
land, Saladin the Mohammedan, and Gengish Khan the 
Mogul. Richard I. is known as a “ crusader.” The 
Crusades were expeditions to recover Palestine from 
the Mohammedans; and there were eight of them, the 
first taking place in 1095 and the last in 1270. In¬ 
nocent III. lived in the era of Crusades, and, like 
nearly all the popes and rulers of the crusading era, 
he was a patron of them. The Crusades bore fruit in 
an impulse to commerce, and an interchange of ideas 
between the East and the West. 


MARTIN LUTHER. 

The next important biography of history is that of 
Luther. The time, 1500 a. d., at which time he was 
fitting for the university. In the year 1510, he went on 
a pilgrimage to Rome, and was at the time, using his 
own language, “a most insane papist.” In 1516, he 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. I 25 

began to preach the doctrines of the Papal Church. 
The following year, Pope Leo X. was sorely in need 
of funds to aid in the erection of St. Peter’s Church at 
Rome; and he sent out agents to gather funds by the 
sale of “ indulgences.” Now “ indulgences” were the 
forgiveness of sins, which anybody wanted to commit 
and was willing to pay in advance for the privilege of 
committing. Luther wrote an argument against this, 
called his “ninety-five theses”; and nailed it to the 
church door in Wittenberg. The result was the Refor¬ 
mation; the Papal Church received a blow, from which 
it will never recover; and liberty and truth gained a 
lasting victory. Luther did much towards the over¬ 
throw of superstition; yet he was superstitious himself, 
insomuch that he believed he had seen the devil. 
Luther was a true man, but he did not reach all truth. 
Indeed! no man can ever reach all truth, for man is 
finite and truth in its wholeness is infinite. 

Luther’s contemporaries of note were Henry VIII., 
king of England, Christopher Columbus, Angelo the 
sculptor, Raphael the painter, and Ariosto the poet. 


OLIVER CROMWELL. 

The next and thirteenth great man in our outline 
is Cromwell, 1600 A. d. At this time, Elizabeth was 
reigning in England and Cromwell was one of the least 
of her subjects, being a babe at Huntingdon. Three 
years later was the time of the accession of the house 
of Stuart. England was a limited monarchy, and had 
been such from time immemorial. It did not have a 
written constitution, but immemorial usage had made 


126 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


certain constitutional principles as indisputable as it 
they had been written. In accordance with these 
principles, the king could neither legislate nor impose 
taxes without the consent of parliament. The prede¬ 
cessors of James I. on the throne of England had 
frequently attempted to impose taxes without consent 
of parliament, but in each and every case had met with 
much opposition and abandoned the attempt. Some¬ 
times, however, there was an evasion of this principle 
of the fundamental law. James I. proclaimed to his 
first parliament that they held their privileges of his 
grace as an absolute king and not of right. From this 
began the conflict between king and parliament, which 
developed into a revolution resulting in the execution 
of Charles I. and the making of Oliver Cromwell the 
foremost man of his time. James’ second parliament 
established the precedent of declining to grant sup¬ 
plies, till a redress of grievances; it was dismissed by 
him before it had passed an act. To his third parlia¬ 
ment, James proclaimed that their privileges were de¬ 
rived from the grace and permission of his ancestors 
and himself. Whereupon the commons asserted that 
the liberties, franchises, privileges, and jurisdictions of 
parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright 
and inheritance of the subjects of England. After 
considerable contest, the third parliament of James 
was dissolved. In 1625, James died and was suc¬ 
ceeded by Charles I., who showed a greater determi¬ 
nation than had been shown by his father to make 
England an absolute monarchy. 

In the few years intervening between his accession 
and March 10, 1629, Charles summoned and dissolved 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


127 


three parliaments, of the last of which Cromwell was a 
member. This third parliament of Charles forced him 
to ratify the Second Great Charter of the English 
people; but he soon after encroached on the rights 
of this parliament, which resisted and was dissolved, 
Eleven years of despotic rule followed; but in 1640 
rebellion made it necessary for Charles to call a fourth 
parliament. He quarrelled with it, and then dissolved 
it. The rebellion grew in magnitude, and Charles 
called his fifth parliament. Cromwell was a member 
of both the fourth and fifth parliaments of Charles. 
His fifth parliament was his last; with it, he carried on 
a civil war for three years, in which Cromwell came to 
the front as leader of the forces of parliament. The 
king was defeated; Cromwell by his military power 
became master of both king and parliament, and during 
the remainder of his life ruled England. Macaulay says 
of him, “ Never was a ruler so conspicuously born for 
sovereignty. He raised England from a low scale to 
the state of being the most formidable power in the 
world.” Goethe says that every extraordinary man has 
a certain mission which he is called upon to perform. 
It was the undoubted mission of Cromwell to lead the 
English nation through its first revolution . Cromwell’s 
contemporaries were the Pilgrim Fathers, Shakespeare, 
Bacon, and Milton. 


GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

The next era of universal importance in history is 
that of the rise of the American republic; and in the 
biography of history, Washington is the great man of 


128 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


the era. But, in the sense that the biography of Alex¬ 
ander and Caesar is the history of their time, the biogra¬ 
phy of Washington is not the history of his time nor 
of the rise of our nation the United States. For, the 
history of the United States comes near being, what it 
is claimed all history should be, that is, the essence of 
innumerable biographies. We fix upon the year 1750 
as the time. It will be noticed that we have fixed all 
our dates to mark the beginning or the middle of a cen¬ 
tury. At this time, Washington was about to begin 
his military career on our western frontier. All are 
more or less familiar with the events of his biography; 
and associated with his name are the oft repeated say¬ 
ings: “The father of his country.”—“ First in war, first 
in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” 

Washington’s great contemporaries were William 
Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the greatest Englishman of his 
time; Frederick the Great, Voltaire, Franklin, Burke, 
and Mozart the musical composer. 


NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

Our fifteenth great man is Napoleon and the time 
is the year 1800. Though only thirty-one years of age, 
he was at this time ruler of France; but he did not 
crown himself emperor till four years later. Napoleon 
was a product of that great political earthquake known 
as the French Revolution. Had there been no French 
Revolution, history would have had no Napoleon; but, 
without the genius of Napoleon, the outcome of the 
revolution would have been very different. Revolution 
was the natural result from the existing political and 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


129 


social conditions of P'rance during the period from 
1 774 the outbreak in 1789. The government was 
an absolute monarchy; the ruler, Louis XVI., was 
incapable; the ministers were corrupt; the treasury was 
almost bankrupt; and the people were burdened by 
taxation, and driven to the verge of desperation by 
their sufferings for the necessaries of life. The French 
literature of the time, the foremost name in which is 
that of Voltaire, exposed the condition of affairs, in¬ 
formed the people of the cause of their sufferings, and 
incited them to insurrection. It was a struggle between 
democracy and despotism, in which democracy with its 
battle cry of “liberty and equality” was victorious. 
But democracy became intoxicated with victory, ran 
riot, and failed to live and act its doctrine of “ liberty 
and equality.” From 1789 to 1795, the revolution was 
in progress; the king was executed, and then followed 
the Reign of Terror. The government was finally 
placed in the hands of the Directory of five. The Di¬ 
rectory, unable to cope with riot and confusion, called 
Napoleon to the command, who turned anarchy into 
order and terminated the revolution. At the head cf 
the French army, Napoleon made all the world wonder 
at his campaigning. In 1799, he overthrew the Di¬ 
rectory, and made himself ruler being indorsed by a 
popular vote. In a few years he became master of a 
large portion of Europe. Napoleon undoubtedly aspired 
to the sovereignty of a continental empire; but the world 
was not in need of such an empire, at the beginning of 
the nineteenth century. In 1812, disaster overtook 
Napoleon in his campaign against Russia. The events 
at Paris, Elba, Waterloo, and the final event at St. 


130 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


Helena followed in succession. Napoleon had a fine 
sense of the fitness of things, embodied in his saying: 
“The implements to him who can handle them.” At 
first, he conducted affairs with order, thoroughness, and 
punctuality, in accordance with truth. He believed in 
“liberty and equality,” and governed well in the early 
part of his career; but his insatiable ambition led him 
into error and falsehood. The truth that was in him, 
was lost in his constant striving for personal aggrandiz- 
ment; and his faith in “liberty and equality” vanished 
before his ambition to found a Dynasty. 

Contemporary with Napoleon were England’s mili¬ 
tary leader Wellington, Goethe the prince of German 
writers, the younger Pitt, Sir Walter Scott, and Wash¬ 
ington Irving. 


JAMES A. GARFIELD. 

Our last great man is Garfield. We select him, 
not because we believe he was greater than any of his 
contemporaries; but because, to us, he is the fittest 
representative of what belongs distinctively to the last 
half of the nineteenth century in which we are now 
living. In the present age, no one man is such a factor 
in history as in the preceding ages the one man has 
been. Our age is an age of progress, of liberty, and 
of fraternity. Our own nation represents, what is best 
in the civilization of the nineteenth century; and Gar¬ 
field fitly represents our nation. The biography of 
Garfield is familiar history. His sufferings and death 
united the hearts of the American people, as they were 
never before united; and, from all over the civilized 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


* 3 * 

world came words ot sympathy, evidencing a fraternal 
feeling unparalled in the history of nations. The clos¬ 
ing scene in the life of Garfield was the first emphatic 
exemplification in history, of the universal brotherhood 
of mankind. 


RECAPITULATION. 

We have built a sort of frame-work of general 
history, out of the biographies of sixteen of its great 
men. We began with Solomon, 1000 b. c ., represent¬ 
ing the power and glory of the Jewish nation. Then 
came Nebuchadnezzar, 600 b. c ., who destroyed the 
Jewish nation, and to whom Babylon owes its place in 
history. Next was Cyrus the Great, 550 b . c ., who 
conquered Babylon and built up the great Medo-Per- 
sian Empire. Then followed Pericles, 450 b . c ., repre¬ 
senting the good and the great in ancient Greece. Next, 
Alexander the Great, 350 b. c., who conquered and 
became monarch of the eastern world. Then came 
Caesar, 50 b . c ., the organizer of the Roman Empire, 
which was the empire of the world for more than four 
centuries. Next, Mohammed, 600 a. d., who not only 
founded an empire, but a religion which has for more 
than twelve centuries been the faith of one-sixth of 
the people of the world. Then followed Charlemagne, 
800 A. d., the acknowledged head of Christendom. 
Then came Alfred the Great, 900 A. d., the father of 
the English people and their literature. Next, William 
the Conqueror, 1050 a. d., who engrafted upon the 
English people much that has borne fruit in good. 
Then followed Innocent III., Pope of Rome, 1200 


1 3 2 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


A. d., who made emperors and ruled kings. Next, 
Martin Luther, 1500 a. d., and the Reformation. Then 
came Oliver Cromwell, 1600 a. d., who guided the 
English people through their first revolution. Next, 
George Washington, 1750 a. d., who represents the 
rise of the United States. Then followed Napoleon, 
1800 A. d., the product of the French Revolution, who 
was master of France and even Europe till his ambition 
mastered him. And lastly, Garfield and our own time. 


The following History Outline shows, in the first 
column, the year in the great man’s life which marks 
the beginning or the middle of a century. The second 
column gives the names of the historical ages, and 
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SOCIETY. 



























CHAPTER VII. 


SOCIETY.* 

I F, in the light of history, we compare past conditions 
of society with those of the present time, we must 
come to the conclusion that there has been wonderful 
progress; but, when we consider the present existing 
vices of society, we are impressed with the magnitude 
of what remains to be accomplished by future progress. 

Human slavery, the condition in which one person 
is the property of another, is found in the early history 
of almost every known nation. It was a part of the 
social system of the ancient Hebrews, and a blot upon 
the civilization of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome. 
In the last quarter of the eighteenth century, slavery 
existed in nearly every country of the civilized world; 
and only a single generation ago it was a reproach upon 
the fair fame of our own republic. To-day, slavery, as 
an institution, is nearly banished from the nations of the 
civilized world. Wherever slavery has existed, free 
labor has been held in disrepute, and the toiling free¬ 
man has been in a condition of thraldom only a little 
better than the condition of the slave. Concurrent with 
the decline and fall of slavery has been the rise and 
progress of the condition of labor. Primitive society 

♦Society is here used in its broadest sense. See under Society, Chapter hi. 


140 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


placed women in a condition of subordination, but the 
advance of civilization has liberated them from that 
condition. In early times, to beg was a crime, and 
pauperism was a felony. Now, beggars are fed, and 
paupers are provided for. In the eighteenth century, 
in England, which then claimed to be the best governed 
country on the globe, the law recognized at least one 
hundred and sixty offenses punishable with death. 
Now, in some of the states in this country, capital 
punishment is abolished, and in none of them are more 
than two crimes, murder and treason, punishable with 
death. Even in England, the number of capital offenses 
has been reduced to seven. Prisons have been changed 
from loathsome dungeons to reformatory institutions; 
and, though in the matter of dealing with crime, prob¬ 
lems remain unsolved, it has become well settled that 
punishment should be remedial and not retaliatory. 

Charitable institutions, and organizations for the 
advancement of literature and science, have wonderfully 
multiplied in the last fifty years, and are features which 
distinguish the present century. Contrast the treatment 
of the insane at the present time, with that of a little 
more than one hundred years ago. Then, ignorance 
and superstition nurtured the belief that the insane 
were possessed with devils; and the victims of this 
misfortune were beaten, chained in dungeons, and 
starved, with a view to make their bodies uncomforta¬ 
ble tenements for the occupancy of the devils. In 
former times, superstition said that disease was caused 
by evil spirits and wrathful divinities; and for centuries 
medicine was shrouded in darkness. But the progress 
of science has unraveled the mysteries pertaining to 
the human organism. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


H 1 

From the first dawn of history until now, society 
has been cursed by war; but the events of recent years 
point to the ultimate abolition of this barbarous insti¬ 
tution. Dueling, an institution much like war in its 
character, has till recently been upheld by society. 
Nowhere, are indications of progress more marked 
than in the history of the Church. Persecutions began 
with the earliest history of Christianity. First, the 
Christian was persecuted by the Jew and the Pagan; 
then, Waldenses and Protestants were persecuted by 
Catholics; later, Catholics and Nonconformists were 
persecuted by the Church of England, and the Jew by 
everybody; and still later, in our own New England, 
we find one branch of the Pilgrims from the persecu¬ 
tions of the Church of England persecuting all other 
branches not adhering to its theology. 

The days of persecution are past; and we are ap¬ 
proaching, slowly but surely, a day of perfect freedom 
of opinion in all matters pertaining to religious belief. 
The present century has been an era of education. 
Knowledge has been wonderfully diffused; and inven¬ 
tions and discoveries, of which the world had never 
dreamed, have followed in rapid succession. Notwith¬ 
standing all this, the pessimist claims that society is 
deteriorating. In proof of which, he calls attention to 
dishonest administration of government; he points to 
the constant conflict between capital and labor, and to 
the daily record of crimes and misdemeanors; he calls 
attention to intemperance and all the other vices and 
immoralities of society, and to their haunts which tell 
tales of misery, want, and woe. 

But appearances depend upon the point of view, 


142 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


The fact of a knowledge of dishonest administration in 
public affairs, evidences exposure and overthrow of the 
dishonest administrators. The conflict between capital 
and labor reminds us of a time, when labor was per¬ 
fectly submissive because every laborer was a serf. 
Crimes that now are heralded to the civilized world, 
were formerly known and noticed only in the immedi¬ 
ate vicinities in which they were committed. In all 
past history, society has been burdened with crimes, 
vices, and immoralities. In all past time, as far back 
as the memory of man runneth, as the world has had 
summer and winter, sunshine and rain, heat and cold, 
calm and tempest, light and darkness; so has it had 
happiness and misery, plenty and want, love and hate, 
truth and falsehood, good and evil. 

Society is ever overcoming difficulties, and steadily 
advancing to a higher and better condition; but con¬ 
stantly meeting with new problems, which are obstacles 
to its onward march. Problems of domestic and social 
life, problems of trade and business, political problems, 
and problems pertaining to morals and religion, beset 
society to-day. The law, with jealous care, guards 
marriage from restraint; and all contracts in restraint 
of marriage are void. But, in view of the frequency 
of divorces, it would seem that the law should prevent 
hasty and ill chosen marriages. Much has been said 
and written, concerning the laxity of our divorce laws; 
but may there not be more defects in our marriage laws ? 
The problem appears to be, whether the vice of divorce 
can be best removed by making it more difficult to un¬ 
marry, or by making it less easy to marry. Notwith¬ 
standing the jealous care of the law, the conventional!- 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


H 3 


ties of society put a restraint upon marriage by requiring 
housekeeping to be begun and conducted, by those who 
have a fortune to make, after the manner of those who 
have a fortune to spend. In a well regulated home, 
parents discipline their children; but in many homes 
things are reversed, and children discipline their parents. 
Subjection, if not learned at home when a child, must 
be learned out in the world when a man, under the 
rigid discipline of the circumstances and affairs of life. 

Want of reverence is a vice to which the children 
and youth of our time are addicted in a marked degree. 
It appears in their rudeness and disrespect to their elders, 
and in their supreme indifference for the rights and feel¬ 
ings of everybody except self. Kindness, courtesy, and 
politeness are wanting in our domestic, our social, and 
our business intercourse. Good manners prevent irri¬ 
tation, as oil prevents friction, and should be indis¬ 
pensable in all the social relations. 

The well-being of society depends very much upon 
the conditions of health; and yet people will not believe 
the fact, that air, sunshine, and water properly applied, 
will do more for health, than all the medicines that have 
thus far been patented. It is a law of health, that the 
lungs shall be furnished with an inexhaustible supply 
of pure air; and nature has made every possible provi¬ 
sion for the keeping of this law. But nature is mocked, 
and the law is the subject of constant infractions. How 
many persons, day after day and night after night, shut 
themselves up in unventilated rooms, where the air 
is contaminated with poisonous gases, which slowly, 
silently and unobserved undermine the foundations of 
health. Could such persons, while musing in their 


*44 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


close apartments, become suddenly conscious of the in¬ 
visible demons of impure air around them preying upon 
their vitality, they would rush in consternation from the 
impending danger. Nature has provided a safeguard 
to health in sensation. Healthy organs of respiration 
tell us when the air is impure; but they lose their 
sensitiveness to impure air by constantly breathing it, 
and so reach a condition in which they will not an¬ 
nounce the fact of its presence. Our dwellings, school 
buildings, churches, theatres, halls, and places of busi¬ 
ness are very defective in arrangements for ventilation, 
greatly to our cost in health and comfort. Next to 
pure air, cleanliness is essential to health; and next to 
cleanliness, sunshine. 

The supreme vice of society is its servility to 
fashion. Fashion is the tyrant that puts shackles upon 
our limbs, that robs us of our health, time, and money. 
We not only have fashionable wearing apparel, but 
fashionable everything, from a baby’s cradle to a sum¬ 
mer hotel, from a drinking saloon to a church, from a 
marriage to a funeral. It is said that fashion arises 
from our desire of beauty, and changes with our ideas 
of what is beautiful. But why should our ideas of 
what is beautiful in fashion change? Our ideas of 
what is beautiful in nature and in art do not change. 
I stand on a New England hilltop, under a cloudless 
sky, in the late afternoon of an autumn day. The set¬ 
ting sun sends forth its last golden rays, as a parting 
benediction to the landscape. The moon is already in 
the eastern sky, and looks modestly down on the orb 
whose glory it reflects. To the north and west, the 
valley is succeeded by circle upon circle of hills, until 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


H 5 


the blue mountain tops appear against the distant hori¬ 
zon. To the south and east, lies a broad wooded valley, 
through which a winding river flows onward towards 
the sea. I look around on forest and on grove, on soli¬ 
tary tree and shrub, and see in the red autumn leaves 
the glow of nature’s fire. By the light of the closing 
day, I behold in all its grandeur the light of the closing 
year. I beheld it as a child, and it was beautiful. I 
behold it as a man, and it is still beautiful. As I muse, 
the sun sinks behind the western mountains; the man¬ 
tle of night falls on the landscape; the scene changes; 
and other beauties of nature appear, just as they always 
have, in the starry canopy of heaven. The human 
form is very old-fashioned; but it is beautiful to-day, 
as it ever has been, and ever will be. 

In the field of art, the creations of Angelo, Raphael 
and Shakespeare in sculpture, painting, and poetry, 
though three centuries or nearly so old, are as beautiful 
to-day as when they were first produced. Fashion does 
not develop beauty, but is capricious and arbitrary; and 
many of its offspring are totally devoid of beauty. In 
order for a thing to be beautiful, it must be rational, 
consistent, and in harmony with its surroundings. A 
fashion may be neither useful nor ornamental, neither 
healthful nor pleasureable, in fact without any redeem¬ 
ing feature whatever, and society adopts it simply be¬ 
cause it is the fashion, and it must be followed regard¬ 
less of convenience, adaptability, or becomingness. In 
the matter of dress, women are to a far greater extent 
the subjects of this thraldom, than men. Physical de¬ 
formities have ever been regarded great misfortunes, 
and the utmost skill of surgical science is being con- 


146 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


stantly taxed for their relief. And yet our ladies, who 
are devotees of fashion, are physically deformed by 
their own voluntary acts. The waist is distorted, the 
spinal column is inclined, and the feet are compressed. 
Fashion has become so enamored of deformities, that 
where it is unable to create an actual one, it produces 
an artificial one by annexing to a lady’s back an article 
called a bustle. The lady’s train is an arrangement of 
fashion, which fetters the person and makes natural and 
easy movements impossible. It not only impedes the 
movements of the wearer, but of others. 

Fortunately this absurdity of fashion is confined to 
a narrow sphere. The majority of mankind are con¬ 
stantly striving to follow the rapidly changing fashions 
regardless of the fact, that it is the character of a man’s 
conduct that is important and not the cut of his coat, 
that it is the quality of a lady’s manners which is a 
matter of consequence and not the material or fashion 
of her dress. The fashions, customs, and usages of 
society make men and women cowards. They are 
eager for popularity and fearful of public opinion, not¬ 
withstanding that public opinion is often wrong because 
it does not know and can not take into consideration all 
the facts. Custom and usage make ruts in which they 
run because they lack the courage to get out of them. 
In society, money covers a multitude of sins; and 
wealth is more respected than honest toil. The idle 
spendthrift, while his money lasts, occupies a higher 
social position, than the intelligent laborer who earns 
his bread by the sweat of his brow. Notwithstanding 
the fact that manual labor furnishes society with all the 
material necessaries and luxuries of life, that we are so 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


Hi 


much indebted to it for our civilization, that it is the 
power which makes wealth, there is a tendency in 
society to look upon it as ignoble. In consequence of 
this, many of our young people grow up in idleness, 
and there is a constant crowding into those occupations 
which require the least manual labor. 

There are prevalent, false notions in regard to 
accomplishments. It never occurs to many young 
ladies nor even to their mothers, that the ability to 
prepare a good dinner and make a bed in a proper 
manner is a greater accomplishment than to be able to 
'play a piano solo indifferently well. Our girls have a 
distaste for domestic employments, avoid them, and 
fail to acquire proficiency in them; nevertheless, they 
usually aspire to sometime superintend at least some 
man’s household affairs. 

Trade and business are constantly confronted by 
labor problems. Strikes have come to be common 
occurrences in this country; and in so far as they 
tend to riot and confusion, they are a dangerous vice. 
Laborers have an undoubted right to combine and 
organize, for mutual protection and advancement; but 
when they interfere to coerce other laborers, they 
strike a blow at freedom herself. We are enthralled 
by monopolies. It is said, that the iniquity of monopoly 
is that it rules out competition; and yet we are enthralled 
too by over-competition. Over-competition, continual 
under-selling, gives us shoddy and adulteration of ma¬ 
terial, and incompleteness and lack of thoroughness in 
manufacture. These are perplexing questions. How 
shall the relation between capital and labor be adjusted? 
and how shall monopoly on the one hand and over-corn- 


148 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


petition on the other be checked, so as to secure the 
equal rights of all parties? 

A system of credit is essential to business pros¬ 
perity; but credit enters too largely, into the everyday 
transactions of trade. To the majority of interest 
payers, the payment of interest is a serious burden. 
Among the masses, credit begets the buying of what 
is not needed and extravagance. It leads to the creat¬ 
ing of obligations with culpable indifference, as to the 
probable chances of ever meeting them. The worst 
feature of the credit system is the large number of 
debtors in this country known as “ beats,” who contract 
all the bills they can and borrow all the money they can 
and never pay. 

The “beat,” like the pauper, is a public charge; 
but he is much worse than the pauper, because it costs 
more to keep him, as his habits of life are more expen¬ 
sive than the pauper’s habits. The tradesman trusts 
one class and loses, then taxes another class to make 
good his loss. There is certainly in the credit system, 
that which leads to unfairness and dishonesty. The 
rightness or wrongness of a given course of conduct, is 
fixed in the minds of the great majority of mankind by 
expressed public opinion. The tendency to avoid pay¬ 
ment of bills, is due to lack of expressed public opinion 
against this course of conduct. The “beat” is morally 
as bad if not worse than the thief. The former is 
tolerated in good society, while the latter is absolutely 
excluded. There is much of dishonesty in the conduct 
of trade and business, which society winks at. Just so 
long as public opinion remains as it now is, there will 
continue to be cases of criminal insolvency, also cases 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


H9 


of the commission of that crime so well-known by the 
name, irregularities. A man may become insolvent, 
and yet be honest; but, when men deliberately obtain 
credit everywhere possible knowing their insolvent con¬ 
dition, and then take advantage of an insolvency law to 
obtain a discharge from the legal obligation to pay their 
debts and to save as much as possible of their assets for 
themselves, they are criminal. The individual engages 
in business for the purpose of obtaining a livelihood for 
himself and family, and more or less of wealth; and 
every individual may attain to some degree of wealth, 
notwithstanding the perplexing questions concerning 
capital and labor, monopoly, over-competition, the 
credit system, and the tendency to dishonest practices, 
if he will but practice economy. The masses in this 
country are poor, not because of legislation or the want 
of it, not because of the manner in which the govern¬ 
ment is administered, but because of lack of economy, 
because they indulge in extravagance and waste. Of 
course we except the poor, who are so by reason of 
misfortunes. Periods of business depression would not 
be seasons of “hard times” for the masses, if they were 
provident. It is the general tendency, for people of 
limited means to live as near as possible like people 
of wealth, thus expending all their earnings or income 
for a present living and taking no thought for a future 
living. Moreover, the supreme folly of the times, is 
the straining to make a-thousand-a-year appearance, on 
a-five-hundred-a-year income. People, who do not live 
within their means, are in a condition of thraldom. 
Yet, to live within one’s income, requires courage to 
overcome the tyranny of fashion, and to refuse to be 
dictated by the customs and usages of society. 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


l S° 


The suffrages of the people in this country are 
for the most part divided between two great political 
parties. At the present time, there is not a clearly de¬ 
fined issue between these parties, upon unsolved po¬ 
litical problems; and we find individuals from both 
these parties, agreeing concerning these problems. Our 
political party contests have pretty generally come to 
be contests for power, and not contests for the establish¬ 
ment or furtherance of principles; and questionable 
methods and measures, are too often factors in these 
contests. In every contest, our political parties spend 
large sums of money; and, on reflection, it seems 
singular, that it takes so much money to get the people 
to say who and what the people themselves want. In 
our partisan politics, there is not perfect freedom. The 
individual member of either party must not express an 
opinion upon questions effecting his party, until he has 
read the leader in the party organ. 

The thraldom of partisan politics lies in the fact, 
that they are run entirely by a very few men. Cau¬ 
cuses and conventions are often farces, the nominations 
being really made beforehand by the party managers. 

Political bossing has come to be a distinctive feat¬ 
ure in our partisan politics. Reform will occur, when 
the individual voter becomes more patriotic than parti¬ 
san, and casts his ballot for the man rather than for the 
party. In our politics and our religion, we are much 
governed by predjudice. We find ourselves adherents 
to parties and creeds; and frequently, should we seek 
for the reason of our adherence, we should find it to be, 
that our fathers before us subscribed to the same party 
or creed and educated us in the faith. In politics and 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


religion, there is a disposition not to do one’s own 
thinking, and to form opinions without due examination. 
Having once expressed opinions, a false notion of con¬ 
sistency leads to a strict outward adherence to them, 
though one may have become satisfied of their error. 
It is easier to be a hypocrite, than to be a nonconform¬ 
ist. It is an age of inquiry; and moral and religious 
questions are, at the present time, receiving more atten¬ 
tion and thought from the people, than ever before. 
However, there are many, who, in relation to all relig¬ 
ious questions, are invariably “on the fence”; also, 
there are many who never look only on their own side, 
and who can not even tell whether the opposite side of 
the fence is a pasture or a vineyard, but such are apt to 
take it for granted that it is a pasture containing a dan¬ 
gerous bull. Inquiry from its very nature, sooner or 
later, must inevitably find truth instead of error. In¬ 
tolerance, in some form, appears in every stage of 
religious development; it is an offspring of the ignoble 
in the human mind, and an enemy to progress. The 
influence of intolerance results in the emphasis of 
metaphysics instead of ethics in religious systems, in 
the teaching of dogma instead of truth. Our religious 
teaching should devote more time to inculcating ethical 
truths to the end that they be practiced in the daily 
conduct of life, and less time to bolstering up and de¬ 
fending the metaphysical uncertainties of creeds. But 
time will solve all the problems, and cure all the vices 
to which this chapter refers; and the future will bring 
to each individual member of society full freedom to 
think, speak, and act, consistent with the like freedom 
of every other individual. 























THE TRUE PURPOSE 
OF LIFE. 



























CHAPTER VIII. 


THE TRUE PURPOSE OF LIFE 



HE majority of mankind are so completely occupied 


A in the struggle for existence on the one hand, and 
so thoroughly absorbed in the pursuit of wealth or 
power on the other, that they give no consideration 
whatever to the true purpose of life, which all should 
have in view. Doubtless, the majority of mankind take 
no thought as to whether their daily conduct is in 
accordance with right or otherwise; and yet there is a 
right course of conduct for all, under all circumstances. 
What is the true purpose of life? Three answers to 
this question are suggested, viz.: to serve God; to pur¬ 
sue happiness; to develop yourself. At first thought, 
these answers seem to be conflicting, and any one answer 
in itself seems unsatisfactory, because the phrases may 
be interpreted to mean “ All things to all men”; but a 
closer examination shows, that the same idea is em¬ 
bodied in each form of words. 

The true purpose of life is to grow or develop into 
the best and highest condition of which the individual 
is capable, under the circumstances in which he is 
placed. This must necessarily bring the greatest happi¬ 
ness, and be acceptable to God. There are false notions 
concerning this question. Many agree, that it is the true 


J 5 6 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


purpose of life to serve God; but when they come to 
the question, how shall the service be rendered? there 
is great diversity of opinion. To serve God, is very 
likely to be interpreted to mean, to worship him in 
accordance with the creed of the interpreter. It never 
occurs to many, that to serve God is anything else than 
to make prayers and exhortations and to sing psalms. 
Many agree that the true purpose of life is to pursue 
happiness, but there is a multitude of notions in regard 
to what happiness consists in. With many, some one 
desire or passion predominates; and with such, the 
gratification of that desire is happiness. Men pursue 
fame, power, or wealth, according as they think these 
necessary to their happiness. But there are conditions, 
which produce temporary happiness followed by un¬ 
happiness; and herein is the matter complicated. There 
is a prevailing notion, that wealth is a condition abso¬ 
lutely necessary to happiness. In consequence of this, 
the pursuit of wealth has come to be, with many, the 
chief aim of life; and everything else is sacrificed to 
this end. Wealth, obtained at the cost of loss of health 
and neglect of mental development, does not bring with 
it happiness. Neither does power or fame bring happi¬ 
ness, when purchased at the cost of honor. In the 
pursuit of happiness, they are nearest the attainment 
thereof, who have made the discovery, which every 
person must make for himself or herself, that the con¬ 
ditions which bring happiness lie within and not with¬ 
out. 

The true purpose of life being to develop one’s self, 
what are the means to the end? First, the observance 
of the laws of physical growth and health; due care 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


157 


for the matters of food and drink, clothing, pure air, 
cleanliness, work and rest. Next, comes the acquisition 
of knowledge and the training of the mind by obser¬ 
vation, communication, reading, and thought. Finally, 
the regulation of the conduct towards mankind. The 
first gives health, and temperance in the exercise of 
desires and passions; the next gives wisdom; and the 
last results in righteousness. It may be suggested, that 
it is all very well for persons of leisure to concern them¬ 
selves with this matter; but that men and women of 
affairs, who are completely absorbed in business, and 
the many who in the struggle of life are barely able to 
obtain sufficient food and clothing to exist, can give no 
attention to any other purpose than getting through 
their daily toil. As well, may it be claimed, that these 
have no time to do right. However poor, one can heed 
the laws of health, keep clean, and be temperate; how¬ 
ever busy, one can heed the laws of conduct, be honest, 
and kind; and every rational individual, however situ¬ 
ated in life, can observe and think. The meaning of 
life to every individual should be, a striving to develop 
all the faculties in such a manner as to reach the highest 
possible condition of manhood or womanhood; and 
whoever acts in accordance with this view will make 
the most and best of life. 




t 








EDUCATION. 























CHAPTER IX. 


EDUCATION. 


“The modern world is full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do 
battle in it, equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator.” 

— Thomas H. Huxley. 


CORRECT system of education, has in view the 



true purpose of life. Its work consists in the im¬ 
parting of knowledge, disciplining the faculties, and 
raising the person to a higher plane; and its end is, to 
bring us to know thoroughly, observe with care, re¬ 
member accurately, think correctly, and act rightly. 
What knowledge ought a correct system of education 
to impart? We find ourselves in the world exposed to 
innumerable circumstances, over many of which we 
have no control, over some of which we have control. 
Now, if we would reach our highest condition, we 
must adapt ourselves to those circumstances over which 
we have no control, and adapt to us those circumstances 
we can control. 

To be able to do this, we must have a knowledge 
of this world in which we live, and of the tendency of 
things in it; a knowledge of mankind and their relation 
to the world; and a knowledge of ourselves and our 
relation to our fellows. Hence, a correct system of 
education, should impart to us such knowledge. A 


162 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


correct system of education disciplines the observing 
powers as well as the memory, trains the faculties 
used in the process of thought, cultivates the sensibility, 
and trains the will. Not only this, it furnishes physical 
training. 

Education is a process of development, and, in its 
broadest sense, is the work of a lifetime; but, when we 
speak of a system of education, we confine education 
to the work of the schools. Our educational system 
embraces public schools, colleges, and schools of special 
instruction. The latter includes professional and train¬ 
ing schools. Our public schools are supported by the 
state, with the ostensible purpose in view of imparting 
to all, such knowledge and discipline as will fit for the 
active duties and responsibilities of life, and especially 
for citizenship. Our colleges are the schools of higher 
education, and they claim to furnish a liberal education. 
Our schools of special instruction, impart knowledge 
and furnish discipline for special vocations. Public 
schools and colleges are for general education, while 
the special schools are for special education. Public 
schools and colleges are of principal importance in our 
educational system, and we will consider what these do 
and fail to do. 

In our public schools, pupils are first taught spell¬ 
ing; and, owing to the gross irregularities with which 
the spelling of our language abounds, the minimum 
time required to gain a necessary knowledge of spelling 
is several school years. Reading is claimed to be taught 
next; but that, which goes for teaching of reading, is in 
fact a teaching of spelling in the majority of cases. If 
by reading we mean the correct and effectual utterance 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 163 

of written or printed language, it is very little taught in 
our public schools. Some knowledge of the art of 
writing is imparted early in the public school course; 
but there is a marked deficiency in the manual training 
necessary to good penmanship, and special schools are 
resorted to. Arithmetic is begun early in the primary 
school course, and is continued all through the grammar 
school course; and in the ungraded public schools, in 
the majority of cases, it is taught the pupil each and 
every year of his or her attendance. Now much of 
this arithmetic teaching is such, that the memory is 
overtaxed while the reason is very little disciplined. In 
the grammar school course, much time is spent on what 
is called English grammar; and, in the ungraded public 
schools, much of the time of many school years is de¬ 
voted to it. This work on grammar which the pupil 
does, is a memorizing of rules and formulas without 
much application of them to actual speaking and writ¬ 
ing. In addition to the above, there is imparted to 
pupils in the public schools below the high school 
grade, some knowledge of geography, history, physi- 
ology, and hygiene. A little training in drawing is 
given; but, in the majority of schools, no other manual 
training. 

In the matter of physical training to promote health 
and easy and graceful movements of the body and limbs, 
very little is done. The majority of pupils never enter 
the high school, so we have already outlined the educa¬ 
tion which the masses obtain from the schools. The 
time occupied in the school work above outlined, is on 
an average about ten years; and it is ten years of one¬ 
sided discipline, instead of many-sided discipline as it 


164 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


should be. It is ten years of memorizing. The observ¬ 
ing powers are not disciplined, nor is the reason trained; 
and to the average pupil, that which is learned in school, 
is true, because the teacher or the text-book says it is 
true. Until there is a radical change in our way of 
spelling, (I will not call it our system of spelling) it 
will continue to be a severe tax on the memory to learn 
to spell; and the only improvement that can be sug¬ 
gested in the teaching of spelling, is not to force the 
matter, but depend on the fact, that years of experience 
will accomplish better results than attempted acquisition 
by main force. Every pupil in the public schools should 
receive thorough training in reading, that is, in the cor¬ 
rect and effectual utterance of written and printed lan¬ 
guage. Expressive utterance of language, is of the first 
importance, and there should be no failure on the part 
of our schools to furnish the necessary discipline to its 
accomplishment. 

Next in importance to the perusal of printed lan¬ 
guage and the correct utterance of it, is the art of writ¬ 
ing. Here manual training comes in; and, whether 
other manual training as “elementary use of hand tools” 
is furnished or not, the manual training necessary to 
good penmanship should be furnished in all public 
schools. Manual training is important in the fact that 
it disciplines the observing powers, as well as practices 
the hand to accurate performance. Some of the arith¬ 
metic work of the public schools might well be omitted. 
After knowledge of the fundamental processes is ac¬ 
quired by the pupil below the high school grade, arith¬ 
metic should be taught only in its application to such 
practical problems as are met with in ordinary affairs. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 165 

Grammar is understood to be the science of the 
correct use of words in speaking and writing. The 
object of grammar teaching is of course the imparting 
to the pupil a knowledge of the correct use of words 
in speaking and writing, and the disciplining of the 
pupil in his or her own use of words. With the pre¬ 
vailing grammar text-books and method of instruction, 
we have a most ineffectual and roundabout way of ac¬ 
complishing this object. Memorizing rules and formu¬ 
las, some of which are borrowed from other languages 
and ill adapted to our own, is certainly not the best way 
of learning the correct use of words. With a set of 
rules and formulas perfectly adapted to our language, 
grammar could not be learned by simply memorizing 
them. How long would it take a child to learn to 
walk, by teaching him the physiological statement of 
the process of walking? As the child learns to walk 
and talk, so can the pupil learn to correctly use words 
in speaking and writing. Less time should be given in 
our public schools to learning geographical names, and 
more time to learning geography by observing details 
suggested by maps; and, in the teaching of history, the 
aim should be that the pupil understand the text, rather 
than to be able to repeat it. 

The importance of imparting some knowledge of 
physiology and hygiene in the public schools, has come 
to be recognized. Now, what knowledge should be 
imparted in the public schools below the high school, 
that has as yet no place in the course? Surely, some 
knowledge of the world and the nature and relation of 
things in it. The knowledge that every happening has 
a cause, should be early imparted; and that in the con- 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


166 

stitution of nature there is a law of compensation, a 
law of economy, a law of growth, and a law of adapta¬ 
tion. A little knowledge of astronomy should be im¬ 
parted, for the child comes in contact at once with phe¬ 
nomena of this branch of knowledge, which, if he is 
not rightly taught to interpret, he will interpret in his 
own way. So, a little knowledge of the other branches 
which relate to matter should be imparted; for, if 
truths concerning solids, liquids, and gases, the mani¬ 
festations of force called sound, heat, light, and elec¬ 
tricity, the phenomena of the atmosphere, and chemical 
change, are not learned in childhood, untruths will be 
learned as certainly as the fact that childhood comes in 
contact with these things. 

Every public school pupil is daily in contact with 
the plant and animal life of our world, and should be 
taught the elementary truths of biology. Some of such 
knowledge of the world as is embraced in the branch 
geology, should likewise be imparted. It is important, 
that some knowledge of mankind in their social rela¬ 
tions should be imparted; some knowledge of the con¬ 
stitution of society and the pupil’s own relation to it; 
some knowledge of the purpose of life and the relation 
of education and occupation to the same and to each 
other, so that the tendency so general to consider edu¬ 
cation a preparation for one class of occupations may 
be eradicated; such knowledge in short as will help to 
success in the business of life, and such as is adapted to 
each and every vocation. But it is not to be understood, 
that all this knowledge is to be imparted by causing 
text-books to be committed to memory; instead, it 
should be imparted in the main by talks or lectures on 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 167 

the part of the teacher, and lessons in actual observa¬ 
tion. The thinking powers should be early trained, and 
the pupil taught to reason. Not by causing him to study 
logic, but by helping him to compare things carefully 
to discover their likeness and difference, then to consider 
the common features of the things compared and to 
form an idea of the class of things found to have the 
common features, next to combine ideas forming a 
statement, and finally to go from one statement to 
other statements. 

In this the pupil should be led along, as is the 
child when learning to walk. The child has learned to 
walk, before it has given it to read the physiological 
statement of the process of walking; and usually the 
pupil has learned to reason, before he reads the rules 
of logic. It is not to be overlooked, that moral training 
with a view to right conduct, and physical training with 
a view to health and good appearance are of the utmost 
importance in a correct system of education. 

We now come to the consideration of the work of 
high schools and colleges, in our system of education. 
The important characteristic of the high school work, 
is its preparatory relation to the college; and we will 
consider its work in connection with college work. The 
usual time given to this work is eight years. More than 
four years of this time, in the regular preparatory and 
college course and this is what we are considering, is 
spent studying the Greek and Latin languages; and, 
for the most part, it is time spent acquiring a little 
knowledge by main force of the grammar of two lan¬ 
guages, which are of no earthly use only so far as they 
furnish a means to knowledge of their literatures. The 


l68 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

average student gets very little knowledge of Greek 
and Latin literature; but spends his force learning 
forms of no more advantage except to the specialist, 
than the forms of the hieroglyphics on the monuments 
of the ancient Egyptians. It is claimed by those who 
defend this study of Greek and Latin, that it is the best 
instrument of mental training . If asked, why so? 
The reply is given, that those best qualified to judge 
say so; but they point out as those best qualified to 
judge , individuals whose personal interests are likely 
to hinder them from unbiased judgments. 

The reasoning on this subject by the professors of 
the languages in question, is very likely to be warped 
by prejudice. It is claimed that the study of Greek 
and Latin is a valuable discipline to the memory; but 
it is not shown to be superior in this respect to other 
departments of study. As a matter of fact, the study 
of Greek and Latin is a severe tax on the memory, and 
furnishes very little discipline to the thinking powers, 
particularly the reason. It is further claimed, that the 
study of Greek and Latin is important to the compre¬ 
hension of words in our own language; but no one 
would for a moment claim this a sufficient reason for 
spending so much time upon it, nor that it is necessary 
to study Latin and Greek in order to understand Eng¬ 
lish. If one understands Latin better than English, he 
will undoubtedly comprehend an English word derived 
from Latin the better for knowing Latin; but the best 
comprehension of words comes from a knowledge of 
their use by the best speakers and writers. Hence, the 
study of the literature of our own language is more 
important to the comprehension of our words derived 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 169 

from the Greek and Latin languages even, than the 
study of those languages. 

The functions of the mind are to know, to feel and 
to will, and the mind is disciplined that it may properly 
perform these functions. School education is more 
concerned with disciplining the intellect, than the 
sensibility or will. The function of the intellect is to 
know, and knowing includes observing, remembering, 
imagining, and thinking. The latter includes reasoning, 
which is the highest process of thought. A system of 
education claiming to discipline the intellect, but which 
in fact disciplines it in the main on the side of memory, 
is a failure. For, the thinking powers of the intellect 
are most in need of training. How can the thinking 
powers best be disciplined, or in other words how can 
the pupil best be taught to think? The child learns to 
talk by hearing others talk, by coming in constant con¬ 
tact with talk; and this suggests that the pupil can best 
learn to think by constant contact with the best thought 
of mankind. 

All the powers of the mind may be disciplined by 
contact with the best available productions of other 
minds. Defenders of the study of Greek and Latin 
sometimes claim, that it is chiefly valuable on account 
of the greatness of the thought and excellence of 
expression with which the student comes in contact in 
the literature studied; but it is the language of the 
literature rather than the thought and expression that is 
chiefly studied, and herein lies the worst defect. The 
greatness of the thought and excellence of expression 
in the literature of languages other than our own, is 
apparent to us only as we see it in terms of our own 


170 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

language. Why should we spend our time translating? 
Let the specialist do the translating, and then we can 
come at once to the great thought and excellent ex¬ 
pression. It may be claimed that the average trans¬ 
lation of the specialist is defective, and fails to bring 
out much that lies in the original; but the translation 
of the specialist is certainly an improvement on the 
student’s own translation and on the ordinary class¬ 
room translation. No one will dispute the fact, that 
the average work done in the college course on Greek 
and Latin is not thorough work, and that thorough 
knowledge of these languages is by no means acquired. 
The study of Greek and Latin, and the study of modern 
foreign languages in our system of education, should be 
displaced by the study of the best literature of these 
languages translated into our own, and by the study of 
our own literature. Thus, the student would come in 
contact with the best thought of the greatest thinkers. 
We have said that more than four years of the eight 
years time devoted to the preparatory and regular col¬ 
lege course, is given to the study of Greek and Latin. 
Two-thirds of the remaining time is given to mathe¬ 
matics and modern foreign languages, leaving the time 
of a little more than one school year for the study of all 
other branches of knowledge. This little more than a 
year of time is devoted to the study of some six or 
more branches selected from the following: astronomy, 
physics, chemistry, mineralogy, biology, geology, physi¬ 
ology, hygiene, rhetoric, political economy, history, 
English literature, psychology, logic, aesthetics, ethics, 
and metaphysics. The acquisition of knowledge of 
many of the above enumerated branches is of more 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


171 

importance to the student, than the acquisition of knowl¬ 
edge of higher mathematics; and their study furnishes 
as valuable discipline. 

It will be seen, by referring to Outline XIII. at the 
end of Chapter III., that many important branches of 
knowledge have no place in the course of study which 
we are considering. This is specially true of the 
division which relates to knowledge of man. The 
study of man socially, the acquisition of knowledge of 
man’s relation to his fellows, is of the utmost importance 
as a preparation for the active duties and responsibilities 
of life; and yet this study has no important place in 
our system. 

School education should discipline the pupil to 
independence of thought, but our system disciplines 
him to dependence on authority. As a mental gym¬ 
nasium (our system is sometimes compared to a gym¬ 
nasium), our system is a failure, because it does not 
provide means for the equal development of the intel¬ 
lectual faculties; but the idea that our colleges should 
be mental gymnasia is wrong in this, that it justifies 
disciplining the mind by learning that which is not the 
most valuable acquisition. It is of first importance, 
that while the mind is being disciplined, it be acquiring 
what is most valuable as knowledge. It is apparent, 
that our system of education is seriously defective both 
as to the knowledge imparted and the discipline given. 
The average college student is not occupied with, nor 
interested in his course of study; but gives more thought 
and enthusiasm to college politics and college sports, 
than to his legitimate work. Our educational system 
turns out into the world annually, a great multitude 


172 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


whose heads are full of false notions concerning them¬ 
selves and things generally; and these notions have to 
be unlearned in the school of life. Our high school 
and college graduates think themselves fitted for no 
other occupations in life than to devote themselves to 
the professions or some pursuit which does not involve 
manual labor. The fact is not known to them, that 
there is much drudgery in the professions, and that they 
afford no more facilities for mental culture outside of 
their particular lines than the manual occupations, so 
habituated have they become to taking a superficial 
view of things. 

Does this course of study and discipline which we 
have been considering furnish a liberal education ? 
Manifestly not. A liberal education is a large, a full, a 
comprehensive one. It furnishes such general knowl¬ 
edge as is useful in every walk of life, and gives a 
comprehensive view of the entire field of knowledge. 
It disciplines the mind to original thinking, and to taking 
a broad view of things. The individual who is liberally 
educated looks at things from different standpoints, and 
recognizes the fact that some things are many-sided. 
He may know but a single language, his mother tongue; 
but he knows that thoroughly, and is not ignorant of its 
literature. He is familiar with the history of mankind 
from the beginning of historic time; he knows the 
history of man’s thinking, as well as his acting; he sees 
that there is a relation between everything, and every¬ 
thing else; he recognizes above all things the impor¬ 
tance of right conduct. 

The Greek and Latin feature of our educational 
system, is a remarkable illustration of conservatism. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


173 


In the seventh century, when the people from whom 
we descended were emerging from barbarism, the 
systematized knowledge of the time was sealed up in 
the Greek and Latin languages. The treasures of a 
decayed civilization, were preserved in these languages, 
knowledge of its laws, its religion, its arts. Then, in 
order to acquire such knowledge, Greek and Latin had 
to be learned. The same is true of the ninth century, 
the time of Alfred the Great. When schools were es¬ 
tablished, it had to be on the basis of Greek and Latin 
study. Such was the case in the thirteenth century, 
when the first English college, Oxford, was founded; 
and Greek and Latin continued to be the storehouse of 
the systematized knowledge of the world, through the 
fifteenth century, the time of the revival of learning, 
and down through the time of Bacon. 

But the situation became changed long ago; and, 
still, Greek and Latin study remain with us. This 
feature of our system is peculiarly adapted for perpetu¬ 
ating itself. Greek and Latin study turn out graduates 
better fitted for teaching Greek and Latin, than for any¬ 
thing else. The conservatism on this matter, is the 
result of the self-interest of a large class of men, who, 
like Demetrius and the crafts-men of ancient Ephesus, 
can say: “Sirs, ye know that by this craft we have our 
wealth,” and when innovation is impending (as is the 
case now), “This our craft is in danger to be set at 
naught.” 






ETHICS 




























































CHAPTER X. 


ETHICS. 

T HAVE already defined ethics, in the third chapter, 
1 to be the name for knowledge of right conduct. 
Before proceeding to some thoughts on practical ethics, 
it is well to take a view of theoretical ethics. The 
existing ethical theories may be classified under three 
heads: supernatural ethics, artificial ethics, and natu¬ 
ral ethics. 

Supernatural ethics embraces two ethical schools, 
the first I will call the dogmatic school, and the second 
is known as the intuitional school. The dogmatic 
school affirms that the basis of ethics is the will of 
God as revealed in the Bible, and that the end of ethics 
is happiness both here and hereafter. The theory of this 
school is developed by the theologians. The intuitional 
school affirms that the basis of ethics is the moral senti¬ 
ment, and that the moral sentiment is innate and not the 
result of experience and education. This school also 
affirms that the end of ethics is happiness here and 
hereafter, and its theory is developed by the meta¬ 
physicians. 

Artificial ethics, is the name I have given for that 
ethical theory developed by Hobbes in his Leviathan, 
in which it is affirmed that the basis of ethics is civil 
law. Here too it is affirmed that happiness is the end 
of ethics. 


178 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


Natural ethics embraces two schools, the first 
known as the utilitarian school, and the second as the 
evolutionary school. The theory of the utilitarian 
school of ethics is best expounded by John Stuart 
Mill. It affirms that the basis of ethics is experience, 
and that conduct is to be estimated by observing its 
results. This school declares the end of ethics to be 
a the greatest happiness to the greatest number”; and 
it lays down the rule, “ Everybody to count for one, 
nobody for more than one.” The evolutionary theory 
of ethics is being developed by Herbert Spencer. It 
affirms that the basis of ethics is in the constitution of 
things. It recognizes necessary relations between causes 
and effects in conduct, has a method of ascertaining 
these relations, formulating them, and deducing rules 
of conduct therefrom. Experience is recognized as an 
important factor in evolutionary ethics, but not as the 
basis. 

Happiness special and general, is recognized in 
this theory as the ultimate end. By the foregoing 
statement it appears, that all the ethical schools recog¬ 
nize happiness as the end of ethics; and it is true that 
all the ethical theorists recognize either directly or 
indirectly, that happiness, somewhere, sometime, to 
somebody, is the supreme end of ethics. But there 
are theorists, who claim that perfection is the supreme 
end. The influence of asceticism surviving as it does 
in some minds, leads them to reject as far as possible 
from their theory of ethics, any idea of happiness as an 
end of conduct. 

What is perfection? It is excellence in the superla¬ 
tive degree, and excellence is goodness. Goodness, 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


179 


when applied to conduct, is good conduct; and good 
conduct, in the superlative degree, is right conduct. 
So that to say, that the end of ethics is perfection, is to 
say that the end of right conduct is right conduct. 
Perfection, as applied to conduct, can mean nothing 
more nor less than right conduct. The accumulated 
experience of mankind has led to the inference, that 
conduct is either good or bad according as it tends to 
happiness or misery; and this inference has necessarily 
come to be regarded a self-evident truth. As good 
conduct is necessarily right conduct, right conduct 
must end in happiness. 

Another class of ethical theorists, affirm that 
virtue is the supreme end. But virtue is excellence, 
and excellence is goodness, so that this theory to avoid 
affirming that happiness is the supreme end reasons in 
a circle and arrives for the end at the point from which 
it started. 

Mark Hopkins, D. D., in his work entitled “The 
Law of Love,” affirms that love is the supreme end. 
Obviously love, as here used, means good-will; good¬ 
will is well-wishing; well-wishing is wishing happiness; 
and the happiness wished for is altruistic happiness, or 
happiness to others. To say then that the end is love, 
is to say that the end is that condition in which the 
happiness of others is desired. Here the means , that 
is the condition of mind in which others happiness is 
desired, is taken for the end , that is others happiness. 
Concerning the proposition that benevolence is the 
supreme end, the same may be said as concerning the 
proposition that love is the supreme end. Benevolence 
is desire for the happiness of others. One other propo- 


i8o 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


sition is made, namely, that blessedness is the supreme 
end; but blessedness is nothing more nor less than 
happiness. It appearing that all ethical theories make 
in reality happiness the supreme end, the question 
arises, what is happiness? Aristotle defined happiness 
as “a kind of well-living and well-doing.” 

Francis Wayland, D. D., a representative of the 
dogmatic school, defined happiness as follows: “ Human 
happiness consists in the gratification of our desires 
within such limits as the Creator has prescribed.” 
Herbert Spencer defines happiness in substance as a 
state in which all the faculties are duly gratified con¬ 
sistent with the maintenance of life; and he emphasizes 
the truth that happiness is relative, that is, dependent 
on the physical, social, and mental states or conditions. 
Happiness is called either egoistic or altruistic accord¬ 
ing as it relates to self or others. Here arises another 
question. If happiness is the end of ethics, is it self 
happiness or others happiness? The theories that 
hold that love or benevolence is the supreme end, as 
we have already seen, answer, it is others happiness. 
Upon this point we have several maxims, as “Live for 
self,”—“Live for others,” — “Love your neighbor as 
yourself,”—“Whatsoever ye would that men should 
do to you, do ye even so to them,” — and “What you 
do not like when done to yourself, do not to others.” 
These maxims each contain truth, and each represents 
a phase of the whole truth. The relation between self 
and others is so intimate, that either pure egoism or 
pure altruism would be an impossibility. There must 
be a living for self, in order for self to be in a condition 
to live for others. If everybody were in a condition to 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. l8l 

live for others, there would be no others in a condition 
to be lived for. Pure egoism supposes a condition in 
which no altruistic faculties are gratified; and con¬ 
versely, pure altruism supposes a condition in which no 
egoistic faculties are gratified. Obviously, the rule 
laid down by Herbert Spencer is the true rule, namely, 
“ Live for self and others.” 

Ethics is sometimes called the science of duty; 
and duty is that, which is due or owing from one 
person to another. The moral sentiment, also called 
conscience, is the faculty which perceives the right in 
given courses of conduct, and feels that it should be 
done. This feeling that forces right conduct upon us, 
carries with it the idea of authority which is the first 
element in the consciousness of duty. The other ele¬ 
ment in the consciousness of duty is the element of 
compulsion, which originates in fears of penalties for 
infractions of religious, political, and social laws. This 
sense of duty has a sort of traditional sacredness about 
it, as if right conduct were better when the result of 
compulsion than when done without a thought of com¬ 
pulsion. The supernatural theory of ethics gives a 
supernatural authority to this sense of duty; but an 
instance occurs to me, where this sense of duty con¬ 
flicts with the alleged revealed will of God. Our 
Christian women consider it a duty “to speak in the 
church,” though contrary to the alleged will of God 
made known through the apostle Paul. Here is a case 
where the law of public opinion is greater than alleged 
revelation. 

The true incentive to right conduct and the true 
hindrance to wrong conduct is a consciousness of the 


182 HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 

necessary natural results. Spencer says that the sense 
of duty will diminish as fast as moralization increases, 
and that moral conduct will be the natural conduct. 
We have already noticed, that supernatural ethics de¬ 
clares its basis to be the will of God supernaturally 
revealed either in the Bible or in the moral sentiment; 
that artificial ethics declares its basis to be civil law; 
and that natural ethics declares its basis to be either 
experience or the constitution of things. The truth 
contained in the supernatural theory is apparent, if we 
say the will of God is revealed in the constitution of 
things. By reason of the constitution of things the 
moral sentiment, or conscience, has developed into its 
present condition; and it represents the accumulated 
experiences which are inherited, together with the 
personal experience, and the results of the personal 
education. The proposition that conscience is the 
naturally given sentiment which guides to conduct, is 
not impious, nor is it inconsistent with a belief that it 
is a God-given sentiment. If there are necessary 
natural relations between causes and effects in con¬ 
duct, these can certainly be ascertained without the 
aid of supernatural revelation, and rules of conduct 
deduced from them; and no thinking person will deny 
the existing relations. 

The artificial theory contains truth in so far as law 
recognizes the natural relations between causes and 
effects in conduct, and bases its rules thereon. Behind 
the law is the power which enacts it, and from this 
very fact law can not be a basis. In natural ethics, the 
utilitarian theory contains truth in so far as it recognizes 
natural relations between causes and effects in conduct; 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


183 

but it only partially recognizes these relations. It formu¬ 
lates rules of conduct on the basis of experience of 
results, and fails to use experience to find a basis of 
conduct in the nature of things. Its rule, u Everybody 
to count for one, nobody for more than one,” does 
not recognize the truth that happiness is relative to 
the conditions of the person. The idea of an equal 
distribution of happiness among individuals, supposes 
an impossibility, for the conditions to happiness are 
infinitely varied. The true theory of ethics, the evo¬ 
lutionary, is being developed by the greatest thinker 
of the century, Herbert Spencer. 

From the foregoing, we arrive at the following 
conclusion: namely, that the basis of ethics is in the 
constitution of things; that happiness for the individual 
and for the race, is the supreme end; that happiness is 
the state in which all the faculties are gratified con¬ 
sistent with the maintenance of life and the highest 
development; that right conduct results in happiness, 
and wrong conduct in unhappiness; that the true in¬ 
centive to right conduct, and the true hindrance to 
wrong conduct, is a consciousness of the necessary 
natural results; and that the true rule of conduct is, 
“Live for self and others.” 

Practical ethics is concerned with formulating 
rules of conduct, and inculcating their practice. The 
Egyptian, Ptah-hotep, is the oldest author of which we 
have any knowledge. More than 2000 years b. c., he 
wrote an ethical work which is preserved in papyrus. 
In this he inculcated regard for neighbor. From the 
time of Ptah-hotep down to the present time practical 
ethics in some form has been taught by all the great 


184 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


religious teachers as well as by the moralists. The 
ethical teaching of Moses, the great religious teacher 
of the Hebrews, is curious to consider. Along with 
the ethical rule, “thou shalt not kill,” is the rule in 
relation to the Amorites and six other nations, “thou 
shalt smite them and utterly destroy them”; and along 
with the rule, “thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s ox,” 
comes the statement in relation to the possessions of 
some of the above-mentioned nations, “only the cattle 
we took for a prey unto ourselves.” The ethical rule 
of Moses as regards neighbor, qualifies neighbor to 
mean only the Hebrew people. Moses’ laws of con¬ 
duct sanction slavery: “Both thy bondmen and thy 
bondmaids which thou shalt have, shall be of the 
heathen that are round about you; of them shall ye 
buy bondmen and bondmaids.— Moreover of the chil¬ 
dren of strangers that do sojourn among you — your 
children after you to inherit them; they shall be your 
bondmen forever.” Zoroaster, the founder of the Per¬ 
sian religion, laid down the rule of conduct: “Let us 
be of those who further the well-being of mankind.” 

Manu, the Hindoo moralist, inculcated virtue. In 
passing, we will notice Solomon, as he comes next in 
point of time. He was the religious poet of the 
Hebrews, and there is much of ethical teaching in his 
writings. He recommended the social virtues, but 
his teaching of virtue was somewhat counteracted by 
his practicing vice. Lao Tsze, the Chinese moralist, 
inculcates self development in ethics; and teaches 
cooperation with the tendency of things. He says, 
“When the wise man meets with opportunity, he rises 
with it.” Confucius, another Chinese moralist and a 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


l8 5 

contemporary of Lao Tsze, is author of the maxim: 

What you do not like when done to yourself, do not 
to others.” Another saying of Confucius in regard to 
conduct is well worth remembering, namely, “The 
superior man is affable, but not adulatory; the mean 
man is adulatory, but not affable.” Buddha, founder 
of a Hindoo religion, inculcated “the eschewing of 
intoxicating drinks, diligence in good deeds, reverence 
and humility, contentment and gratitude,— not hating 
those who hate us, free from greed.” 

Socrates, the first Greek moralist, emphasizes the 
truth that knowledge is the important factor of conduct. 
He seems to have been the first to recognize in some 
degree necessity and causation in conduct. He incul¬ 
cated virtuous conduct both by example and precept. 
The next Greek moralist, Plato, inculcates the practice 
of the four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temper¬ 
ance, and justice. Plato defines virtue as “a certain 
health and beauty and good habit of the soul.” Aris¬ 
totle calls happiness “the highest good,” and defines it 
as we have already seen “as a kind of well-living and 
well-doing.” He says, “Those only who act aright 
obtain what is honorable and good in life”; and further, 
“Moral virtue arises from habit.” Aristotle recognizes 
causation in conduct. He says, “Virtue is the habit in 
conjunction with right reason”; and again, “True pleas¬ 
ure is that which is so to the good man.” 

Mencius, the Chinese moralist after Confucius, 
taught that goodness is natural; and he emphasized 
benevolence. The following is an expressive saying 
of Mencius: “I like life and I also like righteousness. 
If I can not keep the two together, I will let life go and 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


186 

choose righteousness.” Seneca, the Roman moralist, 
shows emphatically the ignobleness and unprofitableness 
of anger. He recommends self-examination as follows: 
“We should every night call ourselves to account ‘ What 
infirmity have I mastered to-day? What passion op¬ 
posed? What temptations resisted? What virtue ac¬ 
quired?’ Our vices will abate of themselves if they be 
brought every day to the shrift.” 

We now come to Paul, whose writings are relig¬ 
ious and form the basis of dogmatic Christianity. These 
writings attempt to reconcile the teaching of Moses 
with the teaching of Christ, and connect them forming 
a system. The writings of Paul are to some extent, 
ethical, as they recommend in general terms kindness, 
industry, patience, hospitality, temperance, chastity, and 
to overcome evil with good. Unfortunately, it seems, 
Christ did not commit His teaching to writing himself, 
neither did those who heard His teaching immediately 
commit it to writing; but from twenty to thirty years 
elapsed before what we have of Christ’s teaching was 
written. Moreover, we have no record of the first 
manuscript, and the earliest manuscript of which we 
have a knowledge is dated in the fourth century. Tak¬ 
ing the “Gospel” as we find it, the best interpretation 
shows that Christ taught practical ethics, and laid down 
no metaphysical dogmas. The Sermon on the Mount 
contains the substance of Christ’s teaching, and in it 
are laid down six commandments or rules of conduct 
in substance as follows: 

1. Be not angry. 

2. Be chaste. 

3. Take no oath. 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 1 87 

4. Resist not evil. 

5. Regard all men as neighbors. 

6. Do unto others as you would have them do to 

you. 

It is a singular fact, that notwithstanding these 
rules are emphasized in the sermon as contrary to the 
law of Moses, expounders of the sermon claim perfect 
harmony between the law of Moses and the command¬ 
ments of Christ. In comparing, we find that the first 
commandment of Christ does not occur at all in the 
law of Moses. In regard to the second, the law of 
Moses allowed divorce, where this command would 
forbid it as unchaste; and the law of Moses allowed 
polygamy. 

The third commandment of Christ is to take no 
oath; but the law of Moses says: “Thou shalt fear 
the Lord thy God, and serve him, and shalt swear by 
his name.” The fourth commandment of Christ is 
resist not evil; but the law of Moses says: “Breach 
for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth; as he hath 
caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be done to him 
again.” The fifth commandment of Christ is regard 
all men as neighbors; but we have already seen, that 
the law of Moses regarded none as neighbors except 
the Hebrew people; and the law of Moses contains 
nothing, like the sixth commandment of Christ. 

The Roman moralist, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 
emphatically taught the naturalness of right conduct. 
He says: “In conformity to the nature of the universe 
every single thing is accomplished.” “Adapt thyself 
to the things with which thy lot has been cast; and 
nothing will stand in the way of thy acting justly and 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


188 

soberly and considerately.” “The universal nature has 
made rational animals for the sake of one another to 
help one another according to their deserts, but in no 
way to injure one another.” “This universal nature is 
named truth.— He who lies is at variance with the 
universal nature, and disturbs the order by fighting 
against the nature of the world.” “ He who does 
wrong, does wrong against himself.” We have seen, 
that the first commandment of Christ was to refrain 
from anger; also that Seneca inculcated the same. 
This is also true of Aurelius, who says: “He who 
yields to pain and he who yields to anger, both are 
wounded and both submit.” The Church Fathers in 
the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, with their 
religious teaching, inculcated morals; but they empha¬ 
sized the metaphysical side of religion rather than the 
ethical, as is always the case with theologians. 

Boethius, the last Roman moralist, taught that good 
and happiness are synonymous. He says: “Everything 
comes to naught if it has no good in it.” “It is all one, 
good and happiness. He who seeks happiness seeks 
good. All men, both good and evil, desire to come to 
good, though they desire it variously. Good men are 
good because they find good. The wicked would not 
be wicked if they found good. They do not find it 
because they do not seek it rightly.” 

Mohammed was the founder of a religion, and, 
though he taught ethics, his system like all religious 
systems makes ethics subordinate to religious dogma. 
After Mohammed, Thomas Aquinas taught practical 
ethics; and then followed the ethical teaching of the 
theologians known as reformers. In the seventeenth 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


189 


century, Pascal, the French moralist, wrote the best 
treatise on practical ethics that had appeared since 
Aurelius’ Meditations. Pascal says: “Let us labor to 
think well; that is the principle of morals.” The 
eighteenth century furnished no great ethical teachers 
other than the metaphysicians and the theologians. 

The nineteenth century has been fruitful in great 
teachers of practical ethics. Goethe, the German writer, 
taught practical ethics, recognizing the relation of cause 
and effect in conduct. He says: “The most reasonable 
way is for every one to follow his vocation to which he 
has been born, and which he has learned, and to avoid 
hindering others from following theirs.” Goethe com¬ 
mends the ethical teaching of Christ. Thomas Carlyle’s 
writings abound in ethical teaching, and with him ethics 
has its basis in the natural tendency of the world. He 
says: “All that is right includes itself in this of cooper¬ 
ating with the real tendency of the world.” “A man 
must conform himself to nature’s laws, be verily in com¬ 
munion with nature and the truth of things.” “The 
meaning of life here on earth might be defined as con¬ 
sisting in this: To unfold yourself, to work what thing 
you have the faculty for. It is a necessity for the human 
being, the first law of our existence.” “The character¬ 
istic of right performance is a certain spontaneity, an 
unconsciousness.” “The progress of man towards 
higher and nobler developments of whatever is highest 
and noblest in him, lies not only prophesied to faith but 
now written to the eye of observation, so that he who 
runs may read.” “ ‘Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, 
do it with all thy might.’ Behind us, behind each one 
of us, lie six thousand years of human effort, human 


190 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


conquest, before us is the boundless Time, with its as 
yet uncreated and unconquered Continents and Eldora- 
dos, which we, even we, have to conquer, to create; and 
from the bosom of Eternity there shine for us celestial 
guiding stars.” 

The writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson, like those 
of Carlyle, abound in ethical teaching. Emerson, too, 
recognizes the relation between cause and effect in con¬ 
duct. The following quotations show the tendency of 
his teaching: “Shallow men believe in luck,— strong 
men believe in cause and effect. Let a man learn that 
everything in nature, even motes and feathers, goes by 
law and not by luck, and that what he sows he reaps.” 
“Every man takes care that his neighbor shall not cheat 
him. But a day comes when he begins to care, that he 
do not cheat his neighbor. Then all goes well.” “The 
right performance of this hour’s duties will be the best 
preparation for the hours or ages that follow it.” “ Speak 
as you think, be what you are, pay your debts of all 
kinds. I prefer to be owned as sound and solvent, and 
my word as good as my bond, and to be what can not 
be skipped, or dissipated, or undermined to all the eclat 
in the universe.” “The subject of economy mixes itself 
with morals, inasmuch as it is a peremptory point of 
virtue that a man’s independence be secured. Poverty 
demoralizes. A man in debt is so far a slave.” 

“Wilt thou seal up the avenues of ill? 

Pay every debt as if God wrote the bill.” 

“It is no use to vote down gravitation or morals.” 
“If I will stand upright, the creation can not bend me.” 

John Stuart Mill teaches that, the consequences 
of our actions upon our character and susceptibilities 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 191 

will follow us in the future as they have done in the 
past and present. He commends the moral teaching 
of Christ, and also of Aurelius. 

John Ruskin teaches practical natural ethics. He 
says: “Believe me, then, the only right principle of 
action here, is to consider good and evil as defined by 
our natural sense of both; and to strive to promote the 
one, and to conquer the other, with as hearty endeavor 
as if there were, indeed, no other world than this. 
Above all, get quit of the absurd idea that Heaven will 
interfere to correct great errors, while allowing its laws 
to take their course in punishing small ones. If you 
prepare a dish of food carelessly, you do not expect 
Providence to make it palatable; neither if, through 
years of folly, you misguide your own life, need you 
expect Divine interference to bring round everything at 
last for the best. I tell you, positively, the world is not 
so constituted. The consequences of great mistakes are 
just as sure as those of small ones, and the happiness 
of your whole life, and of all the lives over which you 
have power, depends as literally on your own common 
sense and discretion as the excellence and order of the 
feast of a day.” He speaks emphatically concerning a 
prevailing vice, as follows: “I would rather, ten times 
rather, hear of a youth — that he had fallen into any sin 
you chose to name,— than that he was in the habit of 
running bills which he could not pay.” 

I have quoted freely from the writers on practical 
ethics to show the development of thought in this 
branch of the subject, and that it tends to the same 
conclusion arrived at in the consideration of theoretical 
ethics, that is, ethics has its basis in the natural consti- 


192 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


tution of things; the true incentive to right conduct and 
the true hindrance to wrong conduct is a consciousness 
of the necessary natural results; right conduct results 
in happiness, and wrong conduct in unhappiness; happi¬ 
ness for the individual and the race is the supreme end; 
happiness is the state in which all the faculties are 
gratified consistent with the maintenance of life and the 
highest development; the true rule of conduct is, “ Live 
for self and others.” 

We will now examine each proposition of the 
foregoing conclusion, so as to understand it better and 
be the more certain of its truth. First, what is meant 
by the proposition: ethics has its basis in the natural 
constitution of things? This is meant, that the world 
and man are so made that all action, whether inorganic 
or organic, whether physical or mental, is followed by 
inevitable results, and that for all physical and mental 
phenomena there is a natural cause; that all conduct is 
followed by inevitable results or consequences; that 
right conduct inevitably results in happiness, the world 
and man being so constituted, therefore we say right 
conduct or ethics has its basis in the constitution of 
things. It is easy to see that right physical action has 
its basis in the constitution of things. The relation of 
physical man to the world around him, to the conditions 
of day and night, heat and cold, sunshine and rain, land 
and water, determine his physical action. A man who 
can not swim does not throw himself with impunity into 
the deep ocean for the sake of the momentary luxury 
of a cool bath, because he knows the inevitable conse¬ 
quence will be loss of life by drowning. Man does not 
make hay in the rain, but in the sunshine. No one 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


193 


exposes himself unclad to a temperature below the 
freezing point, nor voluntarily thrusts his hand in the 
fire. Mankind do not follow their vocations in the 
darkness of night, but in the day time. And, rational 
man does not gorge himself with food to the point of 
suffering, but eats a proper quantity. In all these things 
we see the natural relation between cause and effect; we 
see that inevitable consequences follow acts, and nothing 
will persuade us that any legislation, either supernatural 
or artificial, can change these consequences. Now, is it 
not true, that in moral action, as well as physical, inevi¬ 
table consequences follow? 

Let us consider the subject of anger, which, we are 
sorry to say, receives very little attention from those 
from whom we would expect much attention. The very 
word imports pain, anguish. Does not anger always 
result in unhappiness to self and others? Most cer¬ 
tainly; and it is wrong because of this. Anger is a 
passion most common in savages, but indulged in by 
civilized mankind to a considerable extent, and particu¬ 
larly by children and unthinking adults. One who gets 
angry loses control of self and the situation, and causes 
the one towards whom the anger is directed to experi¬ 
ence the same feeling or a feeling of contempt. Anger 
has no good consequences whatever; and we are forced 
to the belief, that always and everywhere the conse¬ 
quences of anger must be the same by reason of its 
nature. 

How about kindness and agreeableness? Can you 
conceive any other results from acts of kindness and 
agreeableness, than happiness to self and others? It is 
as impossible to conceive as is any other results from 


*94 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


sunshine, than light and heat. We are forced to believe 
that kind and affable conduct is right conduct, and leads 
to happiness; and that no legislation can make it other¬ 
wise, the world and man are so made. Supreme selfish¬ 
ness is an unnatural condition. The human mind has 
altruistic faculties as well as egoistic faculties. A per¬ 
son who is supremely selfish gratifies only the egoistic 
faculties. All the faculties are not gratified, and the 
person develops into a distorted, one-sided being. Su¬ 
preme selfishness, then, leads to unhappiness in self, and 
it certainly causes others unhappiness, because things 
are so constituted. In moral actions we see, then, that 
inevitable consequences follow. Anger and supreme 
selfishness result in unhappiness; kindness and affable¬ 
ness result in happiness. 

The next proposition is, that the true incentive to 
right conduct and the true hindrance to wrong conduct 
is a consciousness of the necessary natural results. We 
should do right, because the necessary natural results to 
self and others is happiness. We should consider, that 
the consequences of all our conduct are inevitable. If 
a consciousness of the necessary natural results, is not 
the incentive to right conduct, the incentive must be 
found in supernatural and artificial ethical ideas of com¬ 
pulsion by authority. If we act because some supposed 
supernatural revelation commands or because some 
social or political law commands, we shall act right 
only so far as the commands are right. 

We have already seen, that the law of Moses is 
not strictly ethical; and we know by experience, that 
all social and political laws are not strictly ethical. 
We know that slavery is not right, and we know that 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


*95 


aggressive warfare is not right. We know it is not 
right to give blow for blow, and we know that all 
legislation tolerates much by implication that is wrong. 
According to the supernatural theory of ethics, we can 
escape the consequences of immoral conduct by an act 
of repentance and by faith in a supernatural interference 
to save us from these consequences. Further, according 
to this theory a supernatural punishment awaits us, if 
we do not repent and exercise faith. This theory, along 
with the dogma of total depravity, furnishes the basis of 
the belief, that natural right conduct in this world apart 
from a belief in this theory and dogma counts for noth¬ 
ing; and this theory makes it very easy for the most 
immoral life imaginable, to escape the natural con¬ 
sequences thereof and receive a passport to eternal 
happiness. Does the Power behind the universe run 
the physical world and physical man by one code of 
laws, and mental or moral man by another code entirely 
different? In the physical world we know the conse¬ 
quences of all acts are inevitable. If a man places his 
hand against a revolving saw and severs it from his arm, 
the consequence is inevitable; he must go through life 
without the hand. If a man by supreme selfishness 
dwarfs and obliterates all the altruistic faculties, must 
he not go through life without these? The conse¬ 
quences of immoral conduct are often hidden, but are 
not less certain because hidden. That the natural 
relations between cause and effect exist in the moral 
world as in the physical, there can be no doubt on 
careful investigation. 

The proposition that the Infinite has two codes of 
laws in accordance with one of which infractions are 


196 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


punished and in accordance with the other not punished, 
in accordance with one of which consequences inevita¬ 
bly follow infractions and in accordance with the other 
not at all, does not satisfy the reason. If the majority 
of mankind believed with the minority, that we can not 
escape both here and hereafter the consequences of all 
our acts, that as we leave this world we must enter the 
next, moral conduct would soon be in a vastly higher 
state of development than at present, and thoroughly 
good men and women would be in the majority instead 
of as at present in the minority. 

The next proposition in our conclusion, namely, 
that right conduct results in happiness and wrong con¬ 
duct in unhappiness, sufficiently appears from the fore¬ 
going; and the next, that happiness for the individual 
and the race is the supreme end, we have clearly shown 
in our consideration of theoretical ethics. 

The next proposition is, happiness is the state in 
which all the faculties are gratified consistent with the 
maintenance of life and the highest development. A 
careful examination of this definition of happiness, 
shows that it excludes all pleasure that is of a tempo¬ 
rary nature followed by pain, and that it excludes all 
intemperate gratification of passions. A gratification 
of all the faculties consistent with the highest develop¬ 
ment can not be characterized as “mere pleasure,” and 
a better or higher state can not be conceived. 

We now come to the rule of conduct, “Live for 
self and others.” This rule of conduct eliminates from 
the struggle for existence the use of fang and coil, beak 
and talon, tooth and nail, which use mankind inherited 
from his ancestors and with all his civilization has not 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


197 


yet outgrown. Mankind has learned to preserve self 
without destroying others, but has yet to learn to live 
without injuring others. Living by this rule, is ex¬ 
emplified in the family and many other associate rela¬ 
tions; and it is living in accordance with natural law. 
Th is rule of conduct, requires the person to adapt him¬ 
self to the nature and tendency of the world and to 
those circumstances in life over which he has no con¬ 
trol, to adapt to himself those circumstances he can 
control, to strive to develop physically and mentally 
into the best and highest possible condition, to live so 
as not to injure or burden any other person, and to live 
so as to help others as much as possible to live the same 
kind of life. In order to fully practice this rule one 
must be wise, courageous, temperate, chaste, peaceful, 
affable, kind, honest, and helpful. In so far as one is 
ignorant, cowardly, intemperate, unchaste, quarrelsome, 
disagreeable, unkind, dishonest, or selfish, just so far he 
or she lacks manhood or womanhood. The practice 
of vice wastes and destroys the moral man, as disease 
does the physical man. Be wise because knowledge 
leads to right conduct, and ignorance to wrong conduct. 
Wisdom discovers truth, and ignorance leads to error. 

We have referred to the importance of knowing 
the relation between cause and effect. The relation is 
sometimes thought to exist or is assumed to exist, when 
it does not. Certain facts are known to exist; certain 
other facts are contemporary; the relation of cause and 
effect is assumed between these two sets of facts, and 
thereby unwarranted conclusions reached. The growth 
of civilization has been an existing fact for centuries; 
dogmatic theology has been a contemporary existing 


198 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE . 


fact; but it is wrong to assume the relation of cause 
and effect between these, and conclude that dogmatic 
theology is the cause of civilization. It is not possible 
to know a thing by examining it from one point of 
view. If we look at the earth from the standpoint 
of astronomy, it is only an insignificant part of the 
vast universe; but if we look at it from the standpoint 
of microscopy, it is itself a vast universe. 

Be courageous, because to do right often requires 
one to stand firm and alone, often to lead. The majority 
of mankind prefer to follow, as it is easier. The longer 
one observes mankind, the more apparent it becomes 
that the great majority in the matter of conduct follow 
some leader or exemplar. Be temperate, not simply to 
accord with legislative enactments or public opinion, 
but because of the happy consequences to self and 
others; and avoid intemperance because of the unhappy 
consequences to self and others. A due amount of 
self-respect will keep men temperate. Speaking of 
self-respect, along with it should be respect for others. 
Self-respect begets respect from others, and respect 
from others begets self-respect. Treat a man like a 
dog, and, if he stands it, he soon comes to resemble 
that animal. Be chaste, for obvious reasons, in view 
of the consequences to self and others. Be peaceable, 
affable, and kind, in your family, in your business, in 
your pleasure, in your politics, and in your religion. 

The commands of Christ to be not angry and to 
resist not evil, are not generally considered to be of 
even secondary importance. Disagreeableness and un¬ 
kindness result in untold unhappiness; and yet, in both 
domestic and business life, disagreeable and unkind 


AND HUMAN CONDUCT. 


*99 


conduct is of very common occurrence. The disagree¬ 
able person is necessarily disagreeable to self as well 
as to others. Be honest, not from fear of punishment 
for dishonesty, for in such case it will only be a question 
of how to be dishonest and avoid punishment; but be 
honest because of the necessary natural results of hon¬ 
est conduct to self and others. In every business trans¬ 
action, honesty requires that the rights and benefits of 
not only self, but of each of the others who are parties 
to it, shall be taken into consideration. An honest 
lawyer will advise his client to adopt the course which 
will be for his client’s interest, and not the course which 
will put the largest fee in his own pocket. An honest 
physician will not give his patient unnecessary attend¬ 
ance and medicine for the sake of the fees. An honest 
manufacturer will not fill an order with material of less 
value than that shown by the sample, and justify him¬ 
self by saying: “I must do this in order to compete.” 
An honest merchant will not deliver an article of poorer 
quality than that purchased. An honest wage-worker 
will well and faithfully perform his task, and will not be 
satisfied with doing as little as possible consistent with 
the drawing of his pay. Honesty in business requires 
one to refrain from all “ tricks of the trade,” and to 
never cover a dishonest transaction by the saying 
“Business is business.” Money obtained in business 
by crooked methods, which evade legal redress, is as 
dishonestly got as if it were obtained by robbery. 

Conduct is greatly effected by habit. Either a 
course of right conduct or a course of wrong conduct 
once entered upon, is likely to be continued by force of 
habit. Hence the importance of always entering upon 


200 


HUMAN KNOWLEDGE 


the honest course. Be helpful. This does not admit 
of wronging one’s neighbors all the week in business, 
contributing largely from the gains thereof to the fund 
for the heathen on Sunday; but, to be helpful is to 
hinder no one, to injure no one, and relates to those 
with whom we come in immediate contact in business 
and everywhere. 

The child, not having learned that the natural result 
of overeating is pain and suffering, is hindered from this 
only by the command of parent and the fear of punish¬ 
ment for disobedience. Many men and women are 
children as regards moral conduct. They do not grasp 
the idea of natural consequences following wrong con¬ 
duct, and are only deterred from it by fear of damna¬ 
tion. They believe there has been a way provided 
whereby they can escape the consequences of their 
wrong conduct, and the tendency is to indulge in the 
wrong conduct taking advantage of the means of escape. 

The prevailing ethical teaching is the teaching of 
the Church, which, strange though it is, does not empha¬ 
size the teaching of Christ as given in His command¬ 
ments, but emphasizes instead, some commands of its 
own, not essential to right conduct. Much of the error 
of human conduct is due to the lack of proper ethical 
teaching. There is a prevailing lack of moral sense, 
traceable to erroneous ethical teaching. With all our 
civilization and educational facilities, we are deficient in 
ethical knowledge. Mankind needs to-day, to be em¬ 
phatically taught natural ethics; and, to a diffusion of 
knowledge of natural ethics, we must look for aid, in 
the solution of those problems, which beset us in the 
physical, social, and mental life of man. 

THE END. 






















INDEX. 


INDEX. 


The number immediately following name is the author's number in “ Table 
of Authors." 


A 

PAGE 

Abbott, Jacob, 258. 82 

Abbott, J. S. C., 266 . 82 

About, E. (a-boo'), 354 . 86 

Abraham.113 

Addison, Joseph, 131. 76 

Aerolites (a'er-o-llt) .18, 19 

XEschines (es'chi-nes), 30. 70 

XEschylus (es'chi-lus), 17. 69 

./Esop, 12 69 

^Esthetics (es-thet'ics) .42, 43 

^Etiology (e-ti-ol'o-gy) .32, 34 

Agassiz, L. (ag'a-see), 271 82 

Agriculture.35, 37 

Alcott, L. M., 362 . 87 

Aldrich, T. B., 374 . 88 

Alexander.118 

Alfred.122 

Algebra (al'ge-bra) . 17 

Amusements. 35, 39, 57 

Analysis (a-nal'y-sis). 17 

Anatomy (a-nat'o-my). 32, 33, 54 

Angelo (an'ja-lo).125, 145 

Anthropology (an'thro-pol'o-gy). 32, 34, 55 

Aquinas, Thomas (a-kwi'nas), 78 . . .. 73, 188 


























ir 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Arabia (a-ra'bi-a).120 

Archaeology (ar'che-ol'o-gy).36, 41, 59 

Archimedes (ar'chi-me'des), 35. 70 

Ariosto (a-re-os'to), 89. 74 

Aristophanes (ar'is-toph'a-nes), 27. 70 

Aristotle (ar'is-to-tle), 32 . 70, 180, 185 

Arithmetic (a-rith'me-tic).17, 163 

Arnold, M., 336 . 86 

Arts.35, 38 

Assyria .115 

Astronomy.17, 52, 166 

Athanasius (ath-a-na'-shi-us), 70.... . 72 

Athens.117 

Atoms. 21 

Augustine (au'gus-tln), 72. 72 

Augustine (the monk).121 

Aurelius (au-re'li-us), 65 ...72, 187 


B 


Babylon.115 

Bacon, Francis, 102. 74 

Bain, A. (ban), 310. 84 

Baker, S. W., 331. 85 

Balzac (bal'sak), 247 . 81 

Bancroft, George (bang'kroft), 251. 81 

Barker, G. F., 368 . 87 

Bavaria (ba-vay're-ah).124 

Beecher, H. W., 297 . 84 

Bentham, Jeremy, 173. 78 

Berkley, George, 133. 76 

Bigelow, J. (big'e-lo), 221.... . 80 

Billings, Josh, 312. 84 

Biography . 36, 41, 60, 97 

Biology. 23, 24, 53, 166 

Black, William, 387 88 

Blackstone, William, 155 77 




































INDEX. 


Ill 


PAGH 

Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), 82. 73 

Bockh (bok), 214. 80 

Boethius (bo-ee'thi-us), 73 72, 188 

Bonaparte (bo'na-part).128 

Boniface (bon'e-fass), 244 81 

Books. 51 

Bossuet (bo-sti-a'), 118. 75 

Boswell, James (boz'wel), 170. 78 

Botany. 24, 25, 53 

Britain (brit'un).119 

Bronte, C. (bron'te), 305 . 84 

Brown, Charles B., 194. 79 

Browne, C. F., 365 . 87 

Browning, R., 291. 83 

Bryant, W. C., 235 . 81 

Buckle, H. T., 337 . 86 

Buddha (bood'da), 16.69, 185 

Buffon (buf'on), 143 .. 76 

Bulwer (bool'wer), 265. 82 

Bunyan, John, 119. 75 

Burke, Edmund, 162. 77 

Burns, Robert, 181. 78 

Butler, Samuel, 114. 75 

Byron, 223 . 80 

c 

Cable, G. W., 391. 88 

Caesar, 43.71, 118 

Calculus. 17 

Calvin, John, 95. 74 

Campbell, T., 206 . 79 

Canute (ka-nut') .134 

Capital.86, 40, 147 

Carlyle (kar-lil'), 237 .81,189 

Carpenter, W. B., 294 84 

Carthage.119 




































IV 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Catullus (ka-tul'us), 45. 71 

Cervantes (ser-van'tez), 98. 74 

Champlin, J. T., 288 . 83 

Channing, W. E. (chan'ing), 209 . 79 

Charlemagne (shar-le-man').121 

Charles I. 126 

Charles V.134 

Chateaubriand (sha-to-bre-on'), 190. 79 

Chaucer, Geoffrey (chau'ser), 85. 73 

Chemistry.21, 22, 52 

Cherbuliez (sher-bii-le-a'), 361. 87 

Chesterfield, 137 76 

Chinese.115 

Christ.186 

Chrysostom (kris'os-tom), 71 72 

Church.200 

Cicero (sis'e-ro), 42. 71 

Cincinnatus (sin-sin-na'tus).117 

Clarke, J. F., 280 83 

Clemens, S. L., 373 87 

Cleopatra (kle-o-pa'tra).119 

Coleridge (kol'rij), 199. 79 

Colleges. 162, 167, 173 

Collins, W. W., 346 86 

Columbus.125 

Comets.18, 19 

Commerce.35, 37 

Comte (kont), 243 81 

Conchology (kon-koPo-p).24, 26 

Condillac (kon-de-yak'), 151. 77 

Confucius (kon-fu'shi-us), 15.69, 184 

Constellations.18, 19 

Cook, Joseph, 378 . 88 

Cooke, J. P., 350 86 

Cooper, J. F., 226 . 80 

Copernicus (ko-per'm-kus), 88. 74 

Corneille (kor-nal'), 112. 75 









































INDEX. 


V 


PACK 

Cosmogony.42, 44 

Cousin (koo-zan'), 233. 81 

Cowper, William, 163 77 

Craik, D. M., 349 . 86 

Credit.148 

Crime.,.140 

Criticism.101 

Croesus (kree'sus).116 

Cromwell.125 

Cross, M. E. L., 322 . 85 

Crusades.124 

Crystallography .22, 23 

Curtis, G. W., 344 . 86 

Cuvier, George (ku-ve-a'), 189. 78 

Cyrus.116 

D 

Dana, J. D., 296 . 84 

Dana, R. H., 222 . 80 

Dana, R. H., Jr., 303 . 84 

Daniel.116 

Dante, 79. 73 

Darius 1.133 

Darius III.118 

Darwin, 275 83 

Davies, Charles (da'vez), 245 81 

Dawson, J. W., 325 85 

Defoe, Daniel, 127. 75 

De la Rame, L. (deh-la-ra-ma'), 386 88 

Demosthenes, 31 70 

Denmark.124 

Departments of Literature.93, 95 

De Quincey, 213. 80 

Descartes (da-kart'), 110. 75 

De Tocqueville (deh-tok'vil), 264 82 

Dexter, H. M., 328 85 




































VI 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Dickens, Charles, 289 83 

Diderot (de-dro'), 150. 77 

Dionysius (dl-o-nish'i-us), 49. 71 

Disraeli (diz-ra'lee), 267 82 

Dodge, M. A., 380 . 88 

Domestic Life. 35, 39, 57 

Drake, J. R., 236 81 

Drama. 99 

Dryden, John, 120. 75 

Dudevant (dud-von'), 261. 82 

Dumas, A. (dii-ma'), 257 . 82 

Duty.181 

Dynamics (dl-nam'ics). 21 


E 


Education. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 139 . . 

Egbert. 

Eggleston, E., 376 . . . . 

Egypt. 

Elliot, George, 322 . . . . 

Embryology. 

Emerson, R. W., 259 . . . 

England. 

English. 

Entomology. 

Essays. 

Ethelbert. 

Ethics. 

Ethnology. 

Euclid, 34. 

Euripides (yoo-rip'i-dez), 21 

Evolution. 

Exodus, The. 

Ezra, 19. 


. . 35, 37, 56, 161 

. 76 

.121 

. 88 

. . . 114, 115, 121 

. 85 

.32, 33 

.82, 190 

.122, 125 

.122 

.24, 26 

.102 

.121 

42, 43, 61, 103, 177 
.... 32, 34, 55 

. 70 

. 70 

.42, 46 

.113 

. 69 



































INDEX. 


VII 


F 

PAGE 

Faraday (far'a-da), 231. 81 

Fashion. 144 

Fen£lon (fa-neh-lon'), 126. 75 

Feuillet, O. (fuh-ya'), 290 . 83 

Fichte (fik'teh), 183. 78 

Fiction .100 

Fielding, Henry, 142. 76 

Firdusi (fur-doo'see), 76. 73 

Fiske, John, 388 . 88 

Force .20, 21 

Fortescue, John (for'tes-ku), 86. 73 

Fowler, O. S., 276 . 83 

France.121, 124, 128 

Franklin, Benjamin, 141 76 

Franks.121 

Frederick the Great.128 

French .129 

Froissart, Jean (frois'art), 84. 73 

Frothingham, O. B., 334 86 

Froude, J. A. (frood), 313 84 

G 

Gaius, 64 72 

Galen, 66. 72 

Galileo (gal-i-lee'o), 106. 74 

Garfield.130 

Gaul .119 

Gengish Kahn (jen'gis-kawn).124 

Genseric (jen'ser-ik).133 

Geography. 29, 30, 54, 165 

Geology. 27, 28, 53 

Geometry. 17 

George, Henry, 383 88 

Germany.119, 124 


































VIII 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Gibbon,E., 167. 77 

Goethe (ger'teh), 176 78, 189 

Goldoni (gol-do'nee), 144 76 

Goldsmith, 160. 77 

Government.35, 39 

Grammar. 35, 37, 56, 163, 165 

Gravitation.15, 17, 21 

Gray, Thomas, 152. 77 

Greece.115, 117 

Greek.167, 173 

Greeley, Horace, 282 . 83 

Greenleaf, 217. 80 

Gregory, 74. 72 

Guizot (ge-zo'), 220 . 80 

H 

Hale, E. E., 333 . 85 

Halevy (a-la-ve'), 366 87 

Hall, C. F., 327 . 85 

Hallam, H., 207 . 79 

Halleck, F., 229 . 80 

Hamilton, Alexander, 179. 78 

Hamilton, Gail, 380 88 

Hamilton, William, 224 . 80 

Hannibal.133 

Happiness.178 

Hardenberg, 197 79 

Hariri (ha-ree'ree), 77. 73 

Haroun al Raschid (ha-roon-al-rash'id).122 

Harris, W. T., 370 . 87 

Harte, F. B., 382 88 

Hawthorne, J., 392. 88 

Hawthorne, N., 260 82 

Hegel (ha'gel), 192. 79 

Heine (hfneh), 248 . 81 

Henry, Patrick, 166. 77 




































INDEX. 


IX 


Henry VIII. 

Herder, J. G., 172. 

Herodotus (he-rod'o-tus), 22 
Herpetology (her-pe-tobo-gy) . 
Herschel, J. F. (her'shel), 234 . 
Herschel, William, 169 . . . . 

Hesiod (he'si-od), 8. 

Higginson, T. W., 339 . . . . 

Hildreth, R., 270 . 

Hill, Thomas, 315. 

Hindoos. 

Hippocrates (hip-pok'ra-tez), 25 

Hiram. 

History. 

Hitchcock, E., 352 . 

Hobbes, Thomas (hobz), 109 . 

Hoffman, 205 . 

Holland, J. G., 317. 

Holmes, O. W., 278 . 

Homer, 7 . 

Hood, Thomas, 246 . 

Hopkins, M., 255 . 

Horace, 50. 

Howells, W. D., 375 . 

Hughes, T. (huz), 341 ... . 

Hugo, V., 254 .. 

Humbolt, Alexander, 191 . . . 

Hume, David, 147. 

Humor. 

Huxley, T. H., 347 . 

Hygiene (hi'gi-ene). 

Hypatia (hl-pa'shi-a') . . . . 


FAGE 

.125 

. 78 

. 70 

.24, 27 

. 81 

. 78 

. 69 

. 86 

. 82 

. 85 

.115 

. 70 

.114 

36, 41, 59, 97, 113, 133, 134, 165 

. 86 

...75, 177 

. 79 

. 85 

. 83 

. 69 

. 81 

.82, 179 

. 71 

. 88 

.. 86 

. 82 

. 79 

. 76 

.103 

. 86 

. 32, 33, 54 

.133 


I 


Ichthyology . 
Indulgences 


24, 27 
. 125 




































X 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ingersoll, R. G., 364 . 87 

Innocent III.123 

Intolerance.151 

Irving, W., 211. 80 

Israel.113 

Italy.123 

J 

James 1.126 

James, Henry, Jr., 389 . 88 

Jefferson, Thomas, 171. 78 

Jehovah.116 

Jeremiah, 11. 69 

Jerrold, D., 256 . 82 

Jerusalem.115 

Jews.115, 116, 120 

John.124 

Johnson, Samuel, 145. 76 

Jonson, Benjamin, 108. 75 

Josephus, 57. 71 

Judah.115 

Juvenal, 59. 71 

K 

Kalidasa (ka-le-da'sa), 58. 71 

Kane, E. K., 321. 85 

Kant (kant), 158. 77 

Keats, 238 . 81 

Kent, James, 185. 78 

Kepler, 107 74 

Kingsley, Charles, 316. 85 

Kleist (kllst), 204 . 79 

Klopstock, 157. 77 

Knight, 232 81 
































INDEX. XI 

PAGE 

Knox, John, 94. 74 

Knowledge .3, 9, 13, IS, 16 


Labor . 

Lamb, Charles, 202 ... 

Lamertine (la-mar-ten'), 230 

Language . 

Lao Tsze (la'o-tseh), 14 
Laplace (la-plass'), 175 . . 

Latin. 

Law. 

Lawrence, E., 340 .... 
Layard, A. H., 309 . . . . 
Leibnitz (lip'mts), 125 . . 
Le Sage (leh-sazh'), 130 

Lessing, 161. 

Lever, C. J. (le'ver), 268 . 
Lewes, G. H. (lu'is), 308 . 

Lewis, Dio, 338 . 

Life. 

Literature. 

Livingstone, D., 293 . . . 

Livy, 51. 

Locke, John, 122 .... 

Logic. 

Longfellow, H. W., 272 . . 

Louis XIV. 

Louis XVI. 

Lowell, J. R., 319 .... 
Lubbock, J., 367 .... 

Lucian (lu'shan), 63 . . . 
Lucretius (lu-kree'shi-us), 44 
Luther, Martin, 91 . . . . 

Lydia. 

Lyell, 242 . 

Lysias (lis'i-as), 26 ... 


L 


. 36, 40, 147 

. 79 

. 80 

.35, 37 

.69, 184 

. 78 

.167, 173 

.... 36, 40, 59, 96 

. 86 

. 84 

. 75 

. 76 

.77 

. 82 

. 84 

. 86 

.15, 23 

42, 43, 61, 67, 109, 110 

. 84 

. 71 

. 75 

. 42, 43, 61 

. 83 

.134 

.129 

. 85 

. 87 

. 72 

. 71 

.74, 124 

.115 

. 81 

. 70 





































XII 


INDEX 


M 


Macaulay, 250 . 

Macchiavelli (mak'i-a-vel), 87 . 
MacDonald, George, 348 . . . 

Macedonia. 

Mackintosh, 186. 

Maine, H. J. S., 335 . 

Mammalogy (mam-maTo-gy) . 

Man. 

Mandeville, John, 80. 

Manu (mun'oo), 5. 

Manufactures. 

Manzoni (man-dzo'nee), 215 

Marlowe, C., 104. 

Masterpieces of Literature . . 

Mathematics. 

Mather, Cotton, 128. 

Matter. 

McCarthy, J., 360 . 

McCosh, J., 287 . 

Mechanics. 

Media. 

Medicine. 

Melanchthon (me-lank'thon), 93 
Mencius (men'shi-us), 33 . . . 

Mental Science. 

Metaphysics. 

Meteors. 

Meteorology. 

Mill, J. S., 269 . 

Milton, John, 113. 

Mineralogy. 

Mind. 

Mining. 

Mirabeau (me-ra-bo'), 174 . . 

Mohammed, 75. 


PAGE 

. 81 

. 74 

. 86 

.118 

. 78 

. 86 

.24, 27 

15, 31, 32, 35, 36, 42, 54, 56, 61 

. 73 

.69, 184 

.35, 37 

. 80 

. 74 

.89, 90 

.16, 52 

. ..... 75 

.. . 15, 20, 21 

. 87 

. 83 

. 21 

.116 


. 32, 33, 55 
.... 74 

... 70, 185 
.... 98 

42, 43, 62, 104 
. ... 18, 19 
. ... 20 , 21 
. 82, 178, 190 
.... 75 

. ... 22, 53 
. ... 15, 41 
. ... 35, 37 
.... 78 

. 73, 120, 188 





































INDEX 


XIII 


PAGE 

Molecules. 21 

Moli&re (mo-le-er'), 116. 75 

Montaigne (mon-tan'), 96. 74 

Montesquieu (mbn-tes-ku'), 136. 76 

More, Thomas, 90. 74 

Morphology.32, 33 

Moses, 2.69, 184 

Motley, J. L., 298 . 84 

Mozart .128 

Muller, F. M., 343 . 86 

Muloch, 349 .•. 86 

N 

Napoleon .128 

Natural Science. 95 

Neander, 225 . 80 

Nebuchadnezzar.115 

Nebulae.18, 19 

Nepos, 47. 71 

Newcomb, S., 371. 87 

Newton, I., 124. 75 

Nineveh.115 

Nordhoff, Charles, 359 . 87 

Normandy.122 

Northmen.122 

Number .15, 16 

o 

Occupations. 35, 37, 56 

Oliphant, M., 314. 85 

Ontology.42, 45 

Oratory.100 

Origen (or'i-jen), 69. 72 

Ormazd. HO 
































XIV 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ornithology...24, 27 

Otis, James, 159. 77 

Ouida (we'da), 386 88 

Ovid (ov'id), 52. 71 

Owen, R., 262 82 


P 


Paine, Thomas, 168 
Palaeontology . . . 
Papal States . . . 
Parliament .... 
Pascal, 117 . . . . 
Pathology . . . . 

Paul, 55. 

Paulding, J. K., 208 
Pedagogics . . . . 
Pellico, 227 .... 
Pentaour, 3 . . . . 
Pericles (per'i-klez) 
Persecutions . . . 

Persia. 

Peter the Great . . 
Petrarch, 81 ... 

Phelps, E. S., 390 . 
Phidias (fid'i-ass) . 
Phillips, W., 285 . . 
Philology (fi-lol'o-jy) 
Philosophy .... 
Phrenology .... 

Physics. 

Physiognomy . . 
Physiology .... 
Pilgrim Fathers . . 
Pindar, 18 . . 

Pitt, Chatham . . . 
pitt (the younger) . 


. 77 

.28, 29 

.123 

.126 

.... 75, 189 

.32, 33 

.... 71, 186 

. 79 

.35, 37 

. 80 

. 69 

.117 

.141 

. . . . 116, 121 

.134 

. 73 

. 88 

.117 

. 83 

... 35, 37, 56 
3, 42, 46, 62, 105 
... 32, 33, 55 
... 19, 20, 52 

.32, 33 

... 32, 33, 54 

.127 

. . .69 

.128 

. . , . 130 




































INDEX. 


XV 


Planets. 

Plato, 29. 

Plautus, 38. 

Pliny, 56. 

Plutarch, 60. 

Poe, E. A., 274 .... 

Poetry. 

Political Economy . . . 
Political Parties . . , . 

Politics. 

Polybius (po-lib'i-us), 39 

Pompey. 

Pope, Alexander, 134 . . 
Porter, Noah, 286 . . . 

Portugal. 

Prescott, W. H., 239 . . 

Prichard, 216. 

Proctor, R. A., 377 . . . 

Professions. 

Psychology. 

Ptah-hotep, 1. 

Ptolemy, 67 . 

Purpose of Life .... 
Pythagoras (pi-thag'o-ras) 


PAGE 

. . . 18 
. . 70, 185 
. . . 70 

. . . 71 

. . . 71 

. . . 83 

35, 38, 98 

36, 40, 58 

36, 40, 150 
. 36, 39, 57 
. . . 70 

. . . 119 

. . . 76 

. . . 83 

. . . 124 
. . . 81 
. . . 80 
. . . 88 

. . 35, 38 
, 42, 43, 61 
. . 69, 183 
. . . 72 

. . . 155 
. . . 117 


R 


Rabelias (ra-bla'), 92. 74 

Racine (ra-seen'), 123. 75 

Raleigh, W. (raw'll), 99. 74 

Raphael (raf'a-el) .125, 145 

Rawlinson, G., 304 . 84 

Reade, Charles, 299 84 

Reformation, The.125 

Reid, Thomas, 146 76 

Reign of Terror.129 

Religion ... .*. 42, 45, 62, 104 




































XVI 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Revolution.127,128 

Rhetoric. 35, 37, 56 

Richard 1.124 

Richter (rik'er), 184.*78 

Rome.118 

Rousseau (roo-s5'), 148. 76 

Ruskin, John, 320 . 85, 191 

Russia ..129 

s 

Saintine (san-ten'), 244 . 81 

Saladin (sal'a-din).124 

Sallust, 46. 71 

Sand, George, 261. 82 

Sandeau, J. (son-do'), 284 83 

Sappho (saf'o), 13. 69 

Saracen Empire (sar'a-cen).121 

Saxe, J. G. (saks), 306 . 84 

Schelling, 203 . 79 

Schiller, 182. 78 

Schlegel (shla'gel), 198. 79 

Schleiermacher (shll'er-ma-ker), 188. 78 

Schools.162 

Science. 3 

Scott, Walter, 195. 79 

Seneca, 54. 71 

Separation, The.114 

Shakespeare, William, 105. 74 

Shaw, H. W., 312. 84 

Shedd, 326 . 85 

Sheridan, R. B., 177. 78 

Sicily.124 

Sidney, Philip, 101. 74 

Simon, J. (se-mon'), 300 . 84 

Slavery .. 

Smith, Adam, 156. 77 




































INDEX. 


XVII 


PAGE 

Smith, Sidney, 196. 79 

Smith, William, 295 84 

Smollett, T. G., 154. 77 

Social Science. 95 

Society. 35, 39, 57, 139 

Socrates, 24 . 70, 185 

Solomon, 6 .69, 113, 184 

Solon, 10. 69 

Sophocles, 20. 70 

Southey, Robert, 201. 79 

Space .15, 16 

Spain.121, 124 

Sparks, 228. 80 

Spencer, H., 323 . 85, 178, 181, 183 

Spenser, E., 100. 74 

Spinoza (spe-no'za), 121. 75 

Spofford, H. P., 372 87 

Squier, 329 . 85 

Stael (sta'el), 187. 78 

Stanley, A. P., 301. 84 

Stanley, H. M., 384 88 

Statics (stat'ics). 21 

Statistics.36, 40 

Stedman, E. C., 363 . 87 

Stephens, J. L., 263 82 

Sterne, L., 149. 77 

Stewart, D., 178. 78 

Stowe, H. B., 292 . 83 

Strabo, 53. 71 

Stuart.125 

Suetonius (swe-to'ni-us), 62. 71 

Sumner, Charles, 283. 83 

Sun. 18 

Superstition.42, 45 

Sweedenborg, 135. 76 

Swift, J., 129.* 76 






































XVIII 


INDEX. 


T 


Tacitus, 61. 

Taine, H. A., 355 . 

Tamerlane (tam-er-lan') . . . 

Tasso (tas'so), 97. 

Taylor, B., 345 . 

Taylor, J., 115. 

Teleology (te-le-ol'o-gy) .... 

Tennyson, 277 . 

Terence (ter'enss), 40 .... 

Tertullian (ter-tul'i-an), 68 . . 

Thackeray, W. M. (thak'e-rl), 281 

Thales (tha'lez), 9. 

Theocritus, 36 . 

Theology. 

Therapeutics (ther-a-peu'tics) 
Thoreau, H. D. (tho'ro), 307 
Thucydides (thu-sid'i-dez), 23 . 

Tieck (teek), 200 . 

Time. 

Tolstoi, 357 . 

Tourgee, A. W., 379 . 

Townsend, L. T., 381 . . . . 

Travels. 

Trigonometry. 

Trollope, A., 302 . 

Truth. 

Turgeneff (toor-gen'ef), 311 . . 

Twain, M., 373 . 

Tyndall, J., 324 . 

Tyre. 


PAGE 

. . . 71 

. . . 87 

. . . 134 
. . . 74 

. . . 86 
. . . 75 

. . 42, 44 
. . . 83 

. . . 70 

. . . 72 

. . . 83 

. . . 69 

. . . 70 

42, 45, 104 
. . 32, 34 
. . . 84 

. . . 70 

. . . 79 

. . 15, 16 
. . . 87 

. . . 88 
. . . 88 
. . . 102 
. . . 17 

. . . 84 

. . . 3 

. . . 84 

. . . 87 

. . . 85 

. 114, 115 


U 


Uhland (oo'lant), 218. 80 

United States.128 

































INDEX. XIX 

V 

PAGB 

Valmiki (vahl'me-ke), 37. 70 

Vega (va'ga), 103. 74 

Verne, J., 356 . 87 

Veterinary. 32, 34, 55 

Victoria. 134 

Virgil, 48 71 

Voltaire (vol-ter'), 138. 76 

Vyasa (ve-ah'sa), 41. 70 

w 

Walker, 249 81 

Walker, F. A., 385 . 88 

Wallace, L., 353 . 86 

War burton, 279 . 83 

Ward, A., 365 . 87 

Warfare.36, 40 

Warner, C. D., 358 87 

Warren, H. W., 369 87 

Washington, George, 164 . 77, 127 

Wayland, 240 . 81, 180 

Webster, Daniel, 210. 79 

Webster, Noah, 180 . . .. 78 

Wellington.130 

Wesley, John, 140. 76 

Whately, R. (hwat'li)), 219. 80 

Wheaton, H. (hwee'ton), 212. 80 

Whipple, E. P., 318. 85 

White, R. G., 332 . 85 

Whitney, W. D., 351. 86 

Whittier, J. G., 273 83 

Wiclif, John, 83. 73 

Wieland (wee'land), 165. 77 

Wilkes, Charles, 252 . 82 

Wilkinson, 241. 81 


































XX 


INDEX. 


PACE 

William 1.122 

Williams, Roger, 111. 75 

Winckelmann (wink'el-man), 153. 77 

Wolf, C., 132. 76 

Woolsey, T. D. (wool'zi), 253 82 

Wordsworth, William (wurdz'wurth), 193. 79 

World, The.15, 16, 54 

X 

Xenophon (zen'o-fon), 28. 70 

Xerxes (zerks'ez).117 

Y 

Yonge, C. M. (yung), 342 . 86 

Youmans, E. L. (yoo'manz), 330 . 85 

z 

Zenobia (ze-no'bi-a).133 

Zoology (zo-61'o-gy). 24, 25, 53 

Zoroaster, 4 . 69, 116, 120, 184 


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